MLS-C01 AWS Certified Machine Learning - Specialty Questions and Answers

The problem of poor performance on the test data is a sign of overfitting, which means the model has learned the training data too well and failed to generalize to new and unseen data. To correct this, the Machine Learning Specialist should consider using methods that reduce the complexity of the model and increase its ability to generalize. Some of these methods are:

Increase regularization: Regularization is a technique that adds a penalty term to the loss function of the model, which reduces the magnitude of the model weights and prevents overfitting. There are different types of regularization, such as L1, L2, and elastic net, that apply different penalties to the weights1.

Increase dropout: Dropout is a technique that randomly drops out some units or connections in the neural network during training, which reduces the co-dependency of the units and prevents overfitting. Dropout can be applied to different layers of the network, and the dropout rate can be tuned to control the amount of dropout2.

Decrease feature combinations: Feature combinations are the interactions between different input features that can be used to create new features for the model. However, too many feature combinations can increase the complexity of the model and cause overfitting. Therefore, the Specialist should decrease the number of feature combinations and select only the most relevant and informative ones for the model3.

1: Regularization for Deep Learning - Amazon SageMaker

2: Dropout - Amazon SageMaker

3: Feature Engineering - Amazon SageMaker

Amazon Personalize is a managed AWS service specifically designed to deliver personalized recommendations with minimal development time. It uses machine learning algorithms tailored for recommendation systems, making it highly suitable for applications where quick integration is essential. By using Amazon Personalize, the company can leverage existing customer data to generate real-time, personalized product recommendations that align better with customer preferences, enhancing the likelihood of customer engagement with recommended items.

Options involving EC2 instances with GPU or accelerated computing primarily enhance computational performance but do not inherently improve recommendation relevance, while Amazon SageMaker would require more development effort to achieve similar results.

The problem described in the question is a case of underfitting, where the neural network model performs poorly on both the training and validation sets. This means that the model has not learned the features of the data well enough and has high bias. To solve this issue, the machine learning specialist should consider the following change:

Add more data to the training set and retrain the model using transfer learning to reduce the bias: Adding more data to the training set can help the model learn more patterns and variations in the data and improve its performance. Transfer learning can also help the model leverage the knowledge from the pre-trained network and adapt it to the new data. This can reduce the bias and increase the accuracy of the model.

Transfer learning for TensorFlow image classification models in Amazon SageMaker

Transfer learning for custom labels using a TensorFlow container and “bring your own algorithm” in Amazon SageMaker

Machine Learning Concepts - AWS Training and Certification

DeepAR is a supervised algorithm that can leverage historical data from related time series to predict demand for new items, unlike ARIMA which requires sufficient historical data for the new item.

From AWS documentation:

“The DeepAR algorithm is a supervised learning algorithm for forecasting scalar (one-dimensional) time series. It can also forecast demand for new items by learning patterns from similar time series.”

— AWS SageMaker DeepAR documentation

The true class frequency for Romance is the percentage of movies that are actually Romance out of all the movies. This can be calculated by dividing the sum of the true values for Romance by the total number of movies. The predicted class frequency for Adventure is the percentage of movies that are predicted to be Adventure out of all the movies. This can be calculated by dividing the sum of the predicted values for Adventure by the total number of movies. Based on the confusion matrix, the true class frequency for Romance is 57.92% and the predicted class frequency for Adventure is 13.12%. References: Confusion Matrix, Classification Metrics

 The modeling technique that the Machine Learning Specialist should use is binary classification. Binary classification is a type of supervised learning that predicts whether an input belongs to one of two possible classes. In this case, the input is the customer’s recent usage data and the output is whether or not the customer is likely to switch to a competitor in the next 30 days. This is a binary outcome, either yes or no, so binary classification is suitable for this problem. The other options are not appropriate for this problem. Time-series prediction is a type of supervised learning that forecasts future values based on past and present data. Anomaly detection is a type of unsupervised learning that identifies outliers or abnormal patterns in the data. Regression is a type of supervised learning that estimates a continuous numerical value based on the input features. References: Binary Classification, Time Series Prediction, Anomaly Detection, Regression

 A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve is a model evaluation technique that can be used to understand how different classification thresholds will impact the model’s performance. A ROC curve plots the true positive rate (TPR) against the false positive rate (FPR) for various values of the classification threshold. The TPR, also known as sensitivity or recall, is the proportion of positive instances that are correctly classified as positive. The FPR, also known as the fall-out, is the proportion of negative instances that are incorrectly classified as positive. A ROC curve can show the trade-off between the TPR and the FPR for different thresholds, and help the Machine Learning Specialist to select the optimal threshold that maximizes the TPR and minimizes the FPR. A ROC curve can also be used to compare the performance of different models by calculating the area under the curve (AUC), which is a measure of how well the model can distinguish between the positive and negative classes. A higher AUC indicates a better model

SageMaker built-in algorithms are optimized to use RecordIO protobuf data format, which significantly improves data transfer and training speeds compared to numpy arrays.

From AWS documentation:

“The Amazon SageMaker built-in algorithms work best with data in the RecordIO protobuf format, which allows for faster data streaming and lower latency during training.”

— AWS SageMaker Algorithm documentation

 To use a custom algorithm in Amazon SageMaker, the Docker container image must have an executable file named train that acts as the ENTRYPOINT for the container. This file is responsible for running the training code and communicating with the Amazon SageMaker service. The train file must be in the PATH of the container and have execute permissions. The other options are not valid ways to package the Docker container for Amazon SageMaker. References:

Use Docker containers to build models - Amazon SageMaker

Create a container with your own algorithms and models - Amazon SageMaker

In predictive maintenance, when a dataset is imbalanced (with far fewer failure cases than non-failure cases), oversampling the minority class helps the model learn from the minority class effectively. The Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE) generates synthetic samples for the minority class by creating data points between existing minority class instances. This can enhance the model’s ability to recognize failure patterns, particularly in imbalanced datasets.

SMOTE increases the effective presence of failure cases in the dataset, providing a balanced learning environment for the model. This is more effective than undersampling, which would risk losing important non-failure data.

 The best feature engineering technique to speed up the model training time without losing a lot of information from the original dataset is to use an autoencoder or principal component analysis (PCA) to replace original features with new features. An autoencoder is a type of neural network that learns a compressed representation of the input data, called the latent space, by minimizing the reconstruction error between the input and the output. PCA is a statistical technique that reduces the dimensionality of the data by finding a set of orthogonal axes, called the principal components, that capture the maximum variance of the data. Both techniques can help reduce the number of features and remove the noise and redundancy in the data, which can improve the model performance and speed up the training process. References:

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training - Dimensionality Reduction for Machine Learning

AWS Machine Learning Training - Deep Learning with Amazon SageMaker

 Amazon Comprehend is a natural language processing (NLP) service that can analyze text and extract insights such as sentiment, entities, topics, and language. Amazon Comprehend also provides custom classification and custom entity recognition features that allow users to train their own models using their own data and labels. For the scenario of routing customer claims to different queues based on categories, Amazon Comprehend custom classification is a suitable solution. The custom classifier can be trained using a .csv file that contains the claim text and the claim label as columns. The custom classifier can then be used to process incoming claims and predict the labels using the Amazon Comprehend API. The predicted labels can be used to route the claims to the appropriate queue. This solution does not require any machine learning expertise or model deployment, and it can be easily integrated with the existing application.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Amazon SageMaker Object2Vec is an algorithm that can learn embeddings of objects such as words, sentences, or documents. It can be used for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, or recommendation systems. However, using this algorithm requires machine learning expertise and model deployment using SageMaker, which are not available for the company.

Option B: Amazon SageMaker Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is an algorithm that can discover the topics or themes in a collection of documents. It can be used for tasks such as topic modeling, document clustering, or text summarization. However, using this algorithm requires machine learning expertise and model deployment using SageMaker, which are not available for the company. Moreover, LDA does not provide labels for the topics, but rather a distribution of words for each topic, which may not match the existing categories of the claims.

Option C: Amazon Textract is a service that can extract text and data from scanned documents or images. It can be used for tasks such as document analysis, data extraction, or form processing. However, using this service is unnecessary and inefficient for the scenario, since the company already has the claim text and label in a database. Moreover, Amazon Textract does not provide custom classification features, so it cannot be used to train a custom classifier using the existing data and labels.

Amazon Comprehend Custom Classification

Amazon SageMaker Object2Vec

Amazon SageMaker Latent Dirichlet Allocation

Amazon Textract

The company should configure Amazon Textract to route low-confidence predictions to Amazon Augmented AI (Amazon A2I). Amazon A2I is a service that allows you to implement human review of machine learning (ML) predictions. It also comes integrated with some of the Artificial Intelligence (AI) services such as Amazon Textract. By using Amazon A2I, the company can perform a manual review on those words that have low confidence scores before performing a business validation. This will help reduce the processing time of loan applications by avoiding errors and rework.

Option A is incorrect because Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth is not a suitable service for human review of Amazon Textract predictions. Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth is a service that helps you build highly accurate training datasets for machine learning. It allows you to label your own data or use a workforce of human labelers. However, it does not provide an easy way to integrate with Amazon Textract and route low-confidence predictions for human review.

Option B is incorrect because using an Amazon Textract synchronous operation instead of an asynchronous operation will not reduce the processing time of loan applications. A synchronous operation is a request-response operation that returns the results immediately. An asynchronous operation is a start-and-check operation that returns a job identifier that you can use to check the status and results later. The choice of operation depends on the size and complexity of the document, not on the confidence of the predictions.

Option D is incorrect because using Amazon Rekognition’s feature to detect text in an image to extract the data from scanned images is not a better alternative than using Amazon Textract. Amazon Rekognition is a service that provides computer vision capabilities, such as face recognition, object detection, and scene analysis. It can also detect text in an image, but it does not provide the same level of accuracy and functionality as Amazon Textract. Amazon Textract can not only detect text, but also extract data from tables and forms, and understand the layout and structure of the document.

Amazon Augmented AI

Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth

Amazon Textract Operations

Amazon Rekognition

The combination of steps that will meet the requirements are to create an IAM role in the development account that the integration account and production account can assume, attach IAM policies to the role that allow access to the feature repository and the S3 buckets, and share the feature repository that is associated with the S3 buckets from the development account to the integration account and the production account by using AWS Resource Access Manager (AWS RAM). This approach will enable cross-account access and sharing of the features stored in Amazon SageMaker Feature Store and Amazon S3.

Amazon SageMaker Feature Store is a fully managed, purpose-built repository to store, update, search, and share curated data used in training and prediction workflows. The service provides feature management capabilities such as enabling easy feature reuse, low latency serving, time travel, and ensuring consistency between features used in training and inference workflows. A feature group is a logical grouping of ML features whose organization and structure is defined by a feature group schema. A feature group schema consists of a list of feature definitions, each of which specifies the name, type, and metadata of a feature. Amazon SageMaker Feature Store stores the features in both an online store and an offline store. The online store is a low-latency, high-throughput store that is optimized for real-time inference. The offline store is a historical store that is backed by an Amazon S3 bucket and is optimized for batch processing and model training1.

AWS Identity and Access Management (IAM) is a web service that helps you securely control access to AWS resources for your users. You use IAM to control who can use your AWS resources (authentication) and what resources they can use and in what ways (authorization). An IAM role is an IAM identity that you can create in your account that has specific permissions. You can use an IAM role to delegate access to users, applications, or services that don’t normally have access to your AWS resources. For example, you can create an IAM role in your development account that allows the integration account and the production account to assume the role and access the resources in the development account. You can attach IAM policies to the role that specify the permissions for the feature repository and the S3 buckets. You can also use IAM conditions to restrict the access based on the source account, IP address, or other factors2.

AWS Resource Access Manager (AWS RAM) is a service that enables you to easily and securely share AWS resources with any AWS account or within your AWS Organization. You can share AWS resources that you own with other accounts using resource shares. A resource share is an entity that defines the resources that you want to share, and the principals that you want to share with. For example, you can share the feature repository that is associated with the S3 buckets from the development account to the integration account and the production account by creating a resource share in AWS RAM. You can specify the feature group ARN and the S3 bucket ARN as the resources, and the integration account ID and the production account ID as the principals. You can also use IAM policies to further control the access to the shared resources3.

The other options are either incorrect or unnecessary. Using AWS Security Token Service (AWS STS) from the integration account and the production account to retrieve credentials for the development account is not required, as the IAM role in the development account can provide temporary security credentials for the cross-account access. Setting up S3 replication between the development S3 buckets and the integration and production S3 buckets would introduce redundancy and inconsistency, as the S3 buckets are already shared through AWS RAM. Creating an AWS PrivateLink endpoint in the development account for SageMaker is not relevant, as it is used to securely connect to SageMaker services from a VPC, not from another account.

1: Amazon SageMaker Feature Store – Amazon Web Services

2: What Is IAM? - AWS Identity and Access Management

3: What Is AWS Resource Access Manager? - AWS Resource Access Manager

 The simplest and fastest way to use the EFS dataset for SageMaker training is to run a SageMaker training job with an EFS file system as the data source. This option does not require any data copying or additional integration steps. SageMaker supports EFS as a data source for training jobs, and it can mount the EFS file system to the training container using the FileSystemConfig parameter. This way, the training script can access the data files as if they were on the local disk of the training instance. References:

Access Training Data - Amazon SageMaker

Mount an EFS file system to an Amazon SageMaker notebook (with lifecycle configurations) | AWS Machine Learning Blog

The best way to meet the requirements is to use a principal component analysis (PCA) model, which is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of the dataset by transforming the original variables into a smaller set of new variables, called principal components, that capture most of the variance and information in the data1. This technique has the following advantages:

It can increase the accuracy of the model by removing noise, redundancy, and multicollinearity from the data, and by enhancing the interpretability and generalization of the model23.

It can decrease the processing time of the model by reducing the number of features and the computational complexity of the model, and by improving the convergence and stability of the model45.

It is suitable for numeric variables, as it relies on the covariance or correlation matrix of the data, and it can handle a large quantity of variables, as it can extract the most relevant ones16.

The other options are not effective or appropriate, because they have the following drawbacks:

A: Creating new features and interaction variables can increase the accuracy of the model by capturing more complex and nonlinear relationships in the data, but it can also increase the processing time of the model by adding more features and increasing the computational complexity of the model7. Moreover, it can introduce more noise, redundancy, and multicollinearity in the data, which can degrade the performance and interpretability of the model8.

C: Applying normalization on the feature set can increase the accuracy of the model by scaling the features to a common range and avoiding the dominance of some features over others, but it can also decrease the processing time of the model by reducing the numerical instability and improving the convergence of the model . However, normalization alone is not enough to address the high dimensionality and high latency issues of the dataset, as it does not reduce the number of features or the variance in the data.

D: Using a multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) model is not suitable for numeric variables, as it is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of the dataset by transforming the original categorical variables into a smaller set of new variables, called factors, that capture most of the inertia and information in the data. MCA is similar to PCA, but it is designed for nominal or ordinal variables, not for continuous or interval variables.

1: Principal Component Analysis - Amazon SageMaker

2: How to Use PCA for Data Visualization and Improved Performance in Machine Learning | by Pratik Shukla | Towards Data Science

3: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for Feature Selection and some of its Pitfalls | by Nagesh Singh Chauhan | Towards Data Science

4: How to Reduce Dimensionality with PCA and Train a Support Vector Machine in Python | by James Briggs | Towards Data Science

5: Dimensionality Reduction and Its Applications | by Aniruddha Bhandari | Towards Data Science

6: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in Python | by Susan Li | Towards Data Science

7: Feature Engineering for Machine Learning | by Dipanjan (DJ) Sarkar | Towards Data Science

8: Feature Engineering — How to Engineer Features and How to Get Good at It | by Parul Pandey | Towards Data Science

[Feature Scaling for Machine Learning: Understanding the Difference Between Normalization vs. Standardization | by Benjamin Obi Tayo Ph.D. | Towards Data Science]

[Why, How and When to Scale your Features | by George Seif | Towards Data Science]

[Normalization vs Dimensionality Reduction | by Saurabh Annadate | Towards Data Science]

[Multiple Correspondence Analysis - Amazon SageMaker]

[Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) | by Raul Eulogio | Towards Data Science]

A scatter plot allows the first two dimensions to be represented by coordinates, while color and size represent the third and fourth dimensions, respectively.

From AWS documentation:

“Scatter plots in Amazon SageMaker Canvas and Data Wrangler can visualize relationships between two numeric variables. Additional dimensions can be represented using point size and color.”

— AWS SageMaker Canvas documentation

Feature selection is the process of selecting a subset of extracted features that are relevant and contribute to minimizing the error rate of a trained model. Some techniques for feature selection are:

Correlation plot with heat maps: This technique visualizes the correlation between features using a color-coded matrix. Features that are highly correlated with each other or with the target variable can be identified and removed to reduce redundancy and noise.

Univariate selection: This technique evaluates each feature individually based on a statistical test, such as chi-square, ANOVA, or mutual information, and selects the features that have the highest scores or p-values. This technique is simple and fast, but it does not consider the interactions between features.

Feature importance with a tree-based classifier: This technique uses a tree-based classifier, such as random forest or gradient boosting, to rank the features based on their importance in splitting the nodes. Features that have low importance scores can be dropped from the model. This technique can capture the non-linear relationships and interactions between features.

The other options are not techniques for feature selection, but rather for feature engineering, which is the process of creating, transforming, or extracting features from the original data. Feature engineering can improve the performance and interpretability of the model, but it does not reduce the number of features.

Data scaling with standardization and normalization: This technique transforms the features to have a common scale, such as zero mean and unit variance, or a range between 0 and 1. This technique can help some algorithms, such as k-means or logistic regression, to converge faster and avoid numerical instability, but it does not change the number of features.

Data binning: This technique groups the continuous features into discrete bins or categories based on some criteria, such as equal width, equal frequency, or clustering. This technique can reduce the noise and outliers in the data, and also create ordinal or nominal features that can be used for some algorithms, such as decision trees or naive Bayes, but it does not reduce the number of features.

Data augmentation: This technique generates new data from the existing data by applying some transformations, such as rotation, flipping, cropping, or noise addition. This technique can increase the size and diversity of the data, and help prevent overfitting, but it does not reduce the number of features.

Feature engineering - Machine Learning Lens

Amazon SageMaker Autopilot now provides feature selection and the ability to change data types while creating an AutoML experiment

Feature Selection in Machine Learning | Baeldung on Computer Science

Feature Selection in Machine Learning: An easy Introduction

A logarithmic transformation is a suitable data transformation for a linear regression model when the data has a skewed distribution, such as when the mode is lower than the median and the median is lower than the mean. A logarithmic transformation can reduce the skewness and make the data more symmetric and normally distributed, which are desirable properties for linear regression. A logarithmic transformation can also reduce the effect of outliers and heteroscedasticity (unequal variance) in the data. An exponential transformation would have the opposite effect of increasing the skewness and making the data more asymmetric. A polynomial transformation may not be able to capture the nonlinearity in the data and may introduce multicollinearity among the transformed variables. A sinusoidal transformation is not appropriate for data that does not have a periodic pattern.

Data Transformation - Scaler Topics

Linear Regression - GeeksforGeeks

Linear Regression - Scribbr

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose is a service that can ingest streaming data and store it in various destinations, including Amazon S3, Amazon Redshift, Amazon Elasticsearch Service, and Splunk. Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose can also convert the incoming data to Apache Parquet or Apache ORC format before storing it in Amazon S3. This can reduce the storage cost and improve the performance of analytical queries on the data. Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose supports various data sources, such as Amazon Kinesis Data Streams, Amazon Managed Streaming for Apache Kafka, AWS IoT, and custom applications. Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose can also apply data transformation and compression using AWS Lambda functions.

AWSDMS is not a valid service name. AWS Database Migration Service (AWS DMS) is a service that can migrate data from various sources to various targets, but it does not support streaming data or Parquet format.

Amazon Kinesis Data Streams is a service that can ingest and process streaming data in real time, but it does not store the data in any destination. Amazon Kinesis Data Streams can be integrated with Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose to store the data in Parquet format.

Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that can analyze streaming data using SQL or Apache Flink, but it does not store the data in any destination. Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics can be integrated with Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose to store the data in Parquet format. References:

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose - Amazon Web Services

What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose? - Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose FAQs - Amazon Web Services

Amazon SageMaker script mode allows users to bring custom training scripts (such as train.py) without needing extensive modifications for specific data formats like TFRecord. By storing the TFRecord data in an Amazon S3 bucket and pointing the SageMaker training job to this bucket, the model can directly access the data, allowing the ML specialist to train the model without additional reformatting or data processing steps.

This approach minimizes development overhead and leverages SageMaker's built-in support for custom training scripts and S3 integration, making it the most efficient choice.

The best solution for this scenario is to use Amazon Kinesis Data Streams to export the data from Amazon DynamoDB to Amazon S3, and then configure QuickSight to access the data in Amazon S3. This solution has the following advantages:

It allows near real-time data ingestion from DynamoDB to S3 using Kinesis Data Streams, which can capture and process data continuously and at scale1.

It enables QuickSight to access the data in S3 using the Athena connector, which supports federated queries to multiple data sources, including Kinesis Data Streams2.

It avoids the need to create and manage a Lambda function or a Glue crawler, which are required for the other solutions.

The other solutions have the following drawbacks:

Using AWS Glue to export the data from DynamoDB to S3 introduces additional latency and complexity, as Glue is a batch-oriented service that requires scheduling and configuration3.

Using an API call from QuickSight to access the data in DynamoDB directly is not possible, as QuickSight does not support direct querying of DynamoDB4.

Using Kinesis Data Firehose to export the data from DynamoDB to S3 is less efficient and flexible than using Kinesis Data Streams, as Firehose does not support custom data processing or transformation, and has a minimum buffer interval of 60 seconds5.

1: Amazon Kinesis Data Streams - Amazon Web Services

2: Visualize Amazon DynamoDB insights in Amazon QuickSight using the Amazon Athena DynamoDB connector and AWS Glue | AWS Big Data Blog

3: AWS Glue - Amazon Web Services

4: Visualising your Amazon DynamoDB data with Amazon QuickSight - DEV Community

5: Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose - Amazon Web Services

The Data Scientist should increase the XGBoost scale_pos_weight parameter to adjust the balance of positive and negative weights and change the XGBoost eval_metric parameter to optimize based on Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC). This will help reduce the number of false negative predictions by the model.

The scale_pos_weight parameter controls the balance of positive and negative weights in the XGBoost algorithm. It is useful for imbalanced classification problems, such as fraud detection, where the number of positive examples (fraudulent transactions) is much smaller than the number of negative examples (non-fraudulent transactions). By increasing the scale_pos_weight parameter, the Data Scientist can assign more weight to the positive class and make the model more sensitive to detecting fraudulent transactions.

The eval_metric parameter specifies the metric that is used to measure the performance of the model during training and validation. The default metric for binary classification problems is the error rate, which is the fraction of incorrect predictions. However, the error rate is not a good metric for imbalanced classification problems, because it does not take into account the cost of different types of errors. For example, in fraud detection, a false negative (failing to detect a fraudulent transaction) is more costly than a false positive (flagging a non-fraudulent transaction as fraudulent). Therefore, the Data Scientist should use a metric that reflects the trade-off between the true positive rate (TPR) and the false positive rate (FPR), such as the Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC). The AUC is a measure of how well the model can distinguish between the positive and negative classes, regardless of the classification threshold. A higher AUC means that the model can achieve a higher TPR with a lower FPR, which is desirable for fraud detection.

XGBoost Parameters - Amazon Machine Learning

Using XGBoost with Amazon SageMaker - AWS Machine Learning Blog

The company wants to perform near-real time defect detection on a time-series of 200 performance metrics, and store all the data for offline analysis. The best approach for this scenario is to use Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose for ingestion and Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics Random Cut Forest (RCF) to perform anomaly detection. Use Kinesis Data Firehose to store data in Amazon S3 for further analysis.

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose is a service that can capture, transform, and deliver streaming data to destinations such as Amazon S3, Amazon Redshift, Amazon OpenSearch Service, and Splunk. Kinesis Data Firehose can handle any amount and frequency of data, and automatically scale to match the throughput. Kinesis Data Firehose can also compress, encrypt, and batch the data before delivering it to the destination, reducing the storage cost and enhancing the security.

Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that can analyze streaming data in real time using SQL or Apache Flink applications. Kinesis Data Analytics can use built-in functions and algorithms to perform various analytics tasks, such as aggregations, joins, filters, windows, and anomaly detection. One of the built-in algorithms that Kinesis Data Analytics supports is Random Cut Forest (RCF), which is a supervised learning algorithm for forecasting scalar time series using recurrent neural networks. RCF can detect anomalies in streaming data by assigning an anomaly score to each data point, based on how distant it is from the rest of the data. RCF can handle multiple related time series, such as the performance metrics of the aircraft engine, and learn a global model that captures the common patterns and trends across the time series.

Therefore, the company can use the following architecture to build the near-real time defect detection solution:

Use Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose for ingestion: The company can use Kinesis Data Firehose to capture the streaming data from the aircraft engine testing, and deliver it to two destinations: Amazon S3 and Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics. The company can configure the Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream to specify the source, the buffer size and interval, the compression and encryption options, the error handling and retry logic, and the destination details.

Use Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics Random Cut Forest (RCF) to perform anomaly detection: The company can use Kinesis Data Analytics to create a SQL application that can read the streaming data from the Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream, and apply the RCF algorithm to detect anomalies. The company can use the RANDOM_CUT_FOREST or RANDOM_CUT_FOREST_WITH_EXPLANATION functions to compute the anomaly scores and attributions for each data point, and use the WHERE clause to filter out the normal data points. The company can also use the CURSOR function to specify the input stream, and the PUMP function to write the output stream to another destination, such as Amazon Kinesis Data Streams or AWS Lambda.

Use Kinesis Data Firehose to store data in Amazon S3 for further analysis: The company can use Kinesis Data Firehose to store the raw and processed data in Amazon S3 for offline analysis. The company can use the S3 destination of the Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream to store the raw data, and use another Kinesis Data Firehose delivery stream to store the output of the Kinesis Data Analytics application. The company can also use AWS Glue or Amazon Athena to catalog, query, and analyze the data in Amazon S3.

What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose?

What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics for SQL Applications?

DeepAR Forecasting Algorithm - Amazon SageMaker

 To improve the training speed of a time-series forecasting model using TensorFlow, the Machine Learning Specialist should change the TensorFlow code to implement a Horovod distributed framework supported by Amazon SageMaker. Horovod is a free and open-source software framework for distributed deep learning training using TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch, and Apache MXNet1. Horovod can scale up to hundreds of GPUs with upwards of 90% scaling efficiency2. Horovod is easy to use, as it requires only a few lines of Python code to modify an existing training script2. Horovod is also portable, as it runs the same for TensorFlow, Keras, PyTorch, and MXNet; on premise, in the cloud, and on Apache Spark2.

Amazon SageMaker is a fully managed service that provides every developer and data scientist with the ability to build, train, and deploy machine learning models quickly3. Amazon SageMaker supports Horovod as a built-in distributed training framework, which means that the Machine Learning Specialist does not need to install or configure Horovod separately4. Amazon SageMaker also provides a number of features and tools to simplify and optimize the distributed training process, such as automatic scaling, debugging, profiling, and monitoring4. By using Amazon SageMaker, the Machine Learning Specialist can parallelize the training to as many machines as needed to achieve the business goals, while minimizing coding effort and infrastructure changes.

1: Horovod (machine learning) - Wikipedia

2: Home - Horovod

3: Amazon SageMaker – Machine Learning Service – AWS

4: Use Horovod with Amazon SageMaker - Amazon SageMaker

Forecasting is a type of machine learning model that predicts future values of a target variable based on historical data and other features. Forecasting is suitable for problems that involve time-series data, such as the number of claims in each category from month to month. Forecasting can handle multiple categories of the target variable, as well as missing or partial information on some features. Therefore, option C is the best choice for the given problem.

Option A is incorrect because classification is a type of machine learning model that assigns a label to an input based on predefined categories. Classification is not suitable for predicting continuous or numerical values, such as the number of claims in each category from month to month. Moreover, classification requires sufficient and complete information on the features that are relevant to the target variable, which is not the case for the given problem. Option B is incorrect because reinforcement learning is a type of machine learning model that learns from its own actions and rewards in an interactive environment. Reinforcement learning is not suitable for problems that involve historical data and do not require an agent to take actions. Option D is incorrect because it combines two different types of machine learning models, which is unnecessary and inefficient. Moreover, classification is not suitable for predicting the number of claims in some categories, as explained in option A.

Forecasting | AWS Solutions for Machine Learning (AI/ML) | AWS Solutions Library

Time Series Forecasting Service – Amazon Forecast – Amazon Web Services

Amazon Forecast: Guide to Predicting Future Outcomes - Onica

Amazon Launches What-If Analyses for Machine Learning Forecasting …

Stratified sampling is a technique that preserves the class distribution of the original dataset when creating a smaller or split dataset. This means that the proportion of examples from each class in the original dataset is maintained in the smaller or split dataset. Stratified sampling can help improve the validation accuracy of the model by ensuring that the validation dataset is representative of the original dataset and not biased towards any class. This can reduce the variance and overfitting of the model and increase its generalization ability. Stratified sampling can be applied to both oversampling and undersampling methods, depending on whether the goal is to increase or decrease the size of the dataset.

The other options are not effective ways to improve the validation accuracy of the model. Acquiring additional data about the majority classes in the original dataset will only increase the imbalance and make the model more biased towards the majority classes. Using a smaller, randomly sampled version of the training dataset will not guarantee that the class distribution is preserved and may result in losing important information from the minority classes. Performing systematic sampling on the original dataset will also not ensure that the class distribution is preserved and may introduce sampling bias if the original dataset is ordered or grouped by class.

Option A is correct because reducing the number of features with the SageMaker PCA algorithm can help remove noise and redundancy from the data, and improve the model’s performance. PCA is a dimensionality reduction technique that transforms the original features into a smaller set of linearly uncorrelated features called principal components. The SageMaker linear learner algorithm supports PCA as a built-in feature transformation option.

Option E is correct because using the SageMaker k-NN algorithm with a dimension reduction target of less than 1,000 can help the model learn from the similarity of the data points, and improve the model’s performance. k-NN is a non-parametric algorithm that classifies an input based on the majority vote of its k nearest neighbors in the feature space. The SageMaker k-NN algorithm supports dimension reduction as a built-in feature transformation option.

Option B is incorrect because using the scikit-learn MDS algorithm to reduce the number of features is not a feasible option, as MDS is a computationally expensive technique that does not scale well to large datasets. MDS is a dimensionality reduction technique that tries to preserve the pairwise distances between the original data points in a lower-dimensional space.

Option C is incorrect because setting the predictor type to regressor would change the model’s objective from classification to regression, which is not suitable for the given problem. A regressor model would output a continuous value instead of a binary label for each phone.

Option D is incorrect because using the SageMaker k-means algorithm with k of less than 1,000 would not help the model classify the phones, as k-means is a clustering algorithm that groups the data points into k clusters based on their similarity, without using any labels. A clustering model would not output a binary label for each phone.

Amazon SageMaker Linear Learner Algorithm

Amazon SageMaker K-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) Algorithm

[Principal Component Analysis - Scikit-learn]

[Multidimensional Scaling - Scikit-learn]

 Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that can analyze streaming data in real time using SQL or Apache Flink applications. It can also use machine learning algorithms, such as Random Cut Forest (RCF), to perform anomaly detection on streaming data. By inserting a Kinesis Data Analytics stream downstream of the Kinesis Data Firehose stream, the retail chain can transform the raw record attributes into simple transformed values using SQL queries. This can be done without changing the existing data ingestion process or deploying additional resources. The transformed records can then be outputted to another Kinesis Data Firehose stream that delivers them to Amazon S3 for training the machine learning model. This approach will require the least amount of development effort, as it leverages the existing Kinesis Data Firehose stream and the built-in SQL capabilities of Kinesis Data Analytics.

Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics - Amazon Web Services

Anomaly Detection with Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics - Amazon Web Services

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose - Amazon Web Services

Amazon S3 - Amazon Web Services

To detect anomalous transactions, the company can use a combination of Random Cut Forest (RCF) and XGBoost models. RCF is an unsupervised algorithm that can detect outliers in the data by measuring the depth of each data point in a collection of random decision trees. XGBoost is a supervised algorithm that can learn from the labeled data points generated by RCF and classify them as normal or anomalous. RCF can also provide anomaly scores that can be used as features for XGBoost to improve the accuracy of the classification. References:

1: Amazon SageMaker Random Cut Forest

2: Amazon SageMaker XGBoost Algorithm

3: Anomaly Detection with Amazon SageMaker Random Cut Forest and Amazon SageMaker XGBoost

Parquet is a columnar storage format that can store data in a compressed and efficient way. Parquet files can improve query performance by reducing the amount of data that needs to be scanned, as only the relevant columns are read from the files. Parquet files can also support predicate pushdown, which means that the filtering conditions are applied at the storage level, further reducing the data that needs to be processed. Parquet files are compatible with Amazon Athena, which can leverage the benefits of the columnar format and provide faster and cheaper queries. Therefore, the records should be stored in Parquet files in Amazon S3 to improve query performance.

Columnar Storage Formats - Amazon Athena

Parquet SerDe - Amazon Athena

Optimizing Amazon Athena Queries - Amazon Athena

Parquet - Apache Software Foundation

The solution C modifies the HPO configuration to use a logarithmic scale for the learning rate parameter. This means that the values of the learning rate are sampled from a log-uniform distribution, which gives more weight to smaller values. This can help to explore the lower end of the range more evenly and find the optimal learning rate more efficiently. The other solutions either use a linear scale, which may not sample enough values from the lower end, or divide the range into sub-intervals, which may miss some combinations of hyperparameters. References:

How Hyperparameter Tuning Works - Amazon SageMaker

Tuning Hyperparameters - Amazon SageMaker

The XGBoost algorithm is a popular machine learning technique for classification problems. It is based on the idea of boosting, which is to combine many weak learners (decision trees) into a strong learner (ensemble model).

The XGBoost algorithm can handle imbalanced data by using the scale_pos_weight parameter, which controls the balance of positive and negative weights in the objective function. A typical value to consider is the ratio of negative cases to positive cases in the data. By increasing this parameter, the algorithm will pay more attention to the minority class (positive) and reduce the number of false negatives.

The XGBoost algorithm can also use different evaluation metrics to optimize the model performance. The default metric is error, which is the misclassification rate. However, this metric can be misleading for imbalanced data, as it does not account for the different costs of false positives and false negatives. A better metric to use is AUC, which is the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The ROC curve plots the true positive rate against the false positive rate for different threshold values. The AUC measures how well the model can distinguish between the two classes, regardless of the threshold. By changing the eval_metric parameter to AUC, the algorithm will try to maximize the AUC score and reduce the number of false negatives.

Therefore, the combination of steps that should be taken to reduce the number of false negatives are to increase the scale_pos_weight parameter and change the eval_metric parameter to AUC.

XGBoost Parameters

XGBoost for Imbalanced Classification

A prediction power score of 1 indicates that the feature perfectly predicts the target variable, which usually suggests target leakage. Target leakage occurs when the feature includes information that would not be available at prediction time, leading to unrealistic performance.

From AWS documentation:

“Prediction power scores close to 1 might suggest target leakage in your dataset, as the feature may contain information about the target that wouldn’t be available at inference.”

— AWS SageMaker Data Wrangler documentation

 The best solution to reduce the cost of the notebook instance and the data preprocessing job is to change the notebook instance type to a smaller general-purpose instance, stop the notebook when it is not in use, and run data preprocessing on an ml.r5 instance with the same memory size as the ml.m5.4xlarge instance by using Amazon SageMaker Processing. This solution will result in the most cost savings because:

Changing the notebook instance type to a smaller general-purpose instance will reduce the hourly cost of running the notebook, since the feature engineering development does not require high CPU and memory resources. For example, an ml.t3.medium instance costs $0.0464 per hour, while an ml.m5.4xlarge instance costs $0.888 per hour1.

Stopping the notebook when it is not in use will also reduce the cost, since the notebook will only incur charges when it is running. For example, if the notebook is used for 8 hours per day, 5 days per week, then stopping it when it is not in use will save about 76% of the monthly cost compared to leaving it running all the time2.

Running data preprocessing on an ml.r5 instance with the same memory size as the ml.m5.4xlarge instance by using Amazon SageMaker Processing will reduce the cost of the data preprocessing job, since the ml.r5 instance is optimized for memory-intensive workloads and has a lower cost per GB of memory than the ml.m5 instance. For example, an ml.r5.4xlarge instance has 128 GB of memory and costs $1.008 per hour, while an ml.m5.4xlarge instance has 64 GB of memory and costs $0.888 per hour1. Therefore, the ml.r5.4xlarge instance can process the same amount of data in half the time and at a lower cost than the ml.m5.4xlarge instance. Moreover, using Amazon SageMaker Processing will allow the data preprocessing job to run on a separate, fully managed infrastructure that can be scaled up or down as needed, without affecting the notebook instance.

The other options are not as effective as option C for the following reasons:

Option A is not optimal because changing the notebook instance type to a memory optimized instance with the same vCPU number as the ml.m5.4xlarge instance has will not reduce the cost of the notebook, since the memory optimized instances have a higher cost per vCPU than the general-purpose instances. For example, an ml.r5.4xlarge instance has 16 vCPUs and costs $1.008 per hour, while an ml.m5.4xlarge instance has 16 vCPUs and costs $0.888 per hour1. Moreover, running both data preprocessing and feature engineering development on the same instance will not take advantage of the scalability and flexibility of Amazon SageMaker Processing.

Option B is not suitable because running data preprocessing on a P3 instance type with the same memory as the ml.m5.4xlarge instance by using Amazon SageMaker Processing will not reduce the cost of the data preprocessing job, since the P3 instance type is optimized for GPU-based workloads and has a higher cost per GB of memory than the ml.m5 or ml.r5 instance types. For example, an ml.p3.2xlarge instance has 61 GB of memory and costs $3.06 per hour, while an ml.m5.4xlarge instance has 64 GB of memory and costs $0.888 per hour1. Moreover, the data preprocessing job does not require GPU, so using a P3 instance type will be wasteful and inefficient.

Option D is not feasible because running data preprocessing on an R5 instance with the same memory size as the ml.m5.4xlarge instance by using the Reserved Instance option will not reduce the cost of the data preprocessing job, since the Reserved Instance option requires a commitment to a consistent amount of usage for a period of 1 or 3 years3. However, the data preprocessing job only runs once a day on average and completes in only 2 hours, so it does not have a consistent or predictable usage pattern. Therefore, using the Reserved Instance option will not provide any cost savings and may incur additional charges for unused capacity.

Amazon SageMaker Pricing

Manage Notebook Instances - Amazon SageMaker

Amazon EC2 Pricing - Reserved Instances

The company needs to transcribe petabytes of audio files from an on-premises VoIP system to an S3 bucket in the AWS Cloud. The transcription algorithm requires GPUs for inference, which are not available on the on-premises system. The VPN connection over a 100 Mbps connection is not sufficient to transfer the large amount of data quickly. Therefore, the company should use an AWS Snowball Edge Compute Optimized device with an NVIDIA Tesla module to run the transcription algorithm locally and leverage the GPU power. The device can store up to 42 TB of data and can be shipped back to AWS for data ingestion. The company can use AWS DataSync to send the resulting transcriptions to the transcription S3 bucket in the AWS Cloud. This solution minimizes the network bandwidth and latency issues and enables faster data processing and transfer.

Option B is incorrect because AWS Snowcone is a small, portable, rugged, and secure edge computing and data transfer device that can store up to 8 TB of data. It is not suitable for processing petabytes of data and does not support GPU-based instances.

Option C is incorrect because AWS Outposts is a service that extends AWS infrastructure, services, APIs, and tools to virtually any data center, co-location space, or on-premises facility. It is not designed for data transfer and ingestion, and it would require additional infrastructure and maintenance costs.

Option D is incorrect because AWS DataSync is a service that makes it easy to move large amounts of data to and from AWS over the internet or AWS Direct Connect. However, using DataSync to ingest the audio files to S3 would still be limited by the network bandwidth and latency. Moreover, running the transcription algorithm on AWS Lambda would incur additional costs and complexity, and it would not leverage the GPU power that the algorithm requires.

AWS Snowball Edge Compute Optimized

AWS DataSync

AWS Snowcone

AWS Outposts

AWS Lambda

 A precision-recall curve is a plot that shows the trade-off between the precision and recall of a binary classifier as the decision threshold is varied. It is a useful tool for evaluating and comparing the performance of different models. To generate a precision-recall curve, the following steps are needed:

Calculate the precision and recall values for different threshold values using the predictions and the true labels of the data.

Plot the precision values on the y-axis and the recall values on the x-axis for each threshold value.

Optionally, calculate the area under the curve (AUC) as a summary metric of the model performance.

Among the four options, option C requires the least coding effort to generate and share a visualization of the daily precision-recall curve from the predictions. This option involves the following steps:

Run a daily Amazon EMR workflow to generate precision-recall data: Amazon EMR is a service that allows running big data frameworks, such as Apache Spark, on a managed cluster of EC2 instances. Amazon EMR can handle large-scale data processing and analysis, such as calculating the precision and recall values for different threshold values from 100 TB of predictions. Amazon EMR supports various languages, such as Python, Scala, and R, for writing the code to perform the calculations. Amazon EMR also supports scheduling workflows using Apache Airflow or AWS Step Functions, which can automate the daily execution of the code.

Save the results in Amazon S3: Amazon S3 is a service that provides scalable, durable, and secure object storage. Amazon S3 can store the precision-recall data generated by Amazon EMR in a cost-effective and accessible way. Amazon S3 supports various data formats, such as CSV, JSON, or Parquet, for storing the data. Amazon S3 also integrates with other AWS services, such as Amazon QuickSight, for further processing and visualization of the data.

Visualize the arrays in Amazon QuickSight: Amazon QuickSight is a service that provides fast, easy-to-use, and interactive business intelligence and data visualization. Amazon QuickSight can connect to Amazon S3 as a data source and import the precision-recall data into a dataset. Amazon QuickSight can then create a line chart to plot the precision-recall curve from the dataset. Amazon QuickSight also supports calculating the AUC and adding it as an annotation to the chart.

Publish them in a dashboard shared with the Business team: Amazon QuickSight allows creating and publishing dashboards that contain one or more visualizations from the datasets. Amazon QuickSight also allows sharing the dashboards with other users or groups within the same AWS account or across different AWS accounts. The Business team can access the dashboard with read-only permissions and view the daily precision-recall curve from the predictions.

The other options require more coding effort than option C for the following reasons:

Option A: This option requires writing code to plot the precision-recall curve from the data stored in Amazon S3, as well as creating a mechanism to share the plot with the Business team. This can involve using additional libraries or tools, such as matplotlib, seaborn, or plotly, for creating the plot, and using email, web, or cloud services, such as AWS Lambda or Amazon SNS, for sharing the plot.

Option B: This option requires transforming the predictions into a format that Amazon QuickSight can recognize and import as a data source, such as CSV, JSON, or Parquet. This can involve writing code to process and convert the predictions, as well as uploading them to a storage service, such as Amazon S3 or Amazon Redshift, that Amazon QuickSight can connect to.

Option D: This option requires writing code to generate precision-recall data in Amazon ES, as well as creating a dashboard to visualize the data. Amazon ES is a service that provides a fully managed Elasticsearch cluster, which is mainly used for search and analytics purposes. Amazon ES is not designed for generating precision-recall data, and it requires using a specific data format, such as JSON, for storing the data. Amazon ES also requires using a tool, such as Kibana, for creating and sharing the dashboard, which can involve additional configuration and customization steps.

Precision-Recall

What Is Amazon EMR?

What Is Amazon S3?

[What Is Amazon QuickSight?]

[What Is Amazon Elasticsearch Service?]

Using log-scaled hyperparameters is a guideline that can improve the automatic model tuning in Amazon SageMaker. Log-scaled hyperparameters are hyperparameters that have values that span several orders of magnitude, such as learning rate, regularization parameter, or number of hidden units. Log-scaled hyperparameters can be specified by using a log-uniform distribution, which assigns equal probability to each order of magnitude within a range. For example, a log-uniform distribution between 0.001 and 1000 can sample values such as 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, or 1000 with equal probability. Using log-scaled hyperparameters can allow the hyperparameter optimization feature to search the hyperparameter space more efficiently and effectively, as it can explore different scales of values and avoid sampling values that are too small or too large. Using log-scaled hyperparameters can also help avoid numerical issues, such as underflow or overflow, that may occur when using linear-scaled hyperparameters. Using log-scaled hyperparameters can be done by setting the ScalingType parameter to Logarithmic when defining the hyperparameter ranges in Amazon SageMaker12

The other options are not valid or relevant guidelines for improving the automatic model tuning in Amazon SageMaker. Choosing the maximum number of hyperparameters supported by Amazon SageMaker to search the largest number of combinations possible is not a good practice, as it can increase the time and cost of the tuning job and make it harder to find the optimal values. Amazon SageMaker supports up to 20 hyperparameters for tuning, but it is recommended to choose only the most important and influential hyperparameters for the model and algorithm, and use default or fixed values for the rest3 Specifying a very large hyperparameter range to allow Amazon SageMaker to cover every possible value is not a good practice, as it can result in sampling values that are irrelevant or impractical for the model and algorithm, and waste the tuning budget. It is recommended to specify a reasonable and realistic hyperparameter range based on the prior knowledge and experience of the model and algorithm, and use the results of the tuning job to refine the range if needed4 Executing only one hyperparameter tuning job at a time and improving tuning through successive rounds of experiments is not a good practice, as it can limit the exploration and exploitation of the hyperparameter space and make the tuning process slower and less efficient. It is recommended to use parallelism and concurrency to run multiple training jobs simultaneously and leverage the Bayesian optimization algorithm that Amazon SageMaker uses to guide the search for the best hyperparameter values5

Updating the existing SageMaker endpoint to use a new configuration that is weighted to send 5% of the traffic to the new variant is the simplest approach with the least risk to deploy the model and roll it back, if needed. This is because SageMaker supports A/B testing, which allows the Specialist to compare the performance of different model variants by sending a portion of the traffic to each variant. The Specialist can monitor the metrics of each variant and adjust the weights accordingly. If the new variant does not perform as expected, the Specialist can revert traffic to the last version by resetting the weights to 100% for the old variant and 0% for the new variant. This way, the Specialist can deploy the model without affecting the customer experience and roll it back easily if needed. References:

Amazon SageMaker

Deploying models to Amazon SageMaker hosting services

The MAPE of the predictor could be improved by making the following changes to the CreatePredictor API call:

Set PerformAutoML to true. This will allow Amazon Forecast to automatically evaluate different algorithms and choose the one that minimizes the objective function, which is the mean of the weighted losses over the forecast types. By default, these are the p10, p50, and p90 quantile losses1. This option can help find a better algorithm than DeepAR+ for the given data.

Set PerformHPO to true. This will enable hyperparameter optimization (HPO), which is the process of finding the optimal values for the algorithm-specific parameters that affect the quality of the forecasts. HPO can improve the accuracy of the predictor by tuning the hyperparameters based on the training data2.

The other options are not likely to improve the MAPE of the predictor. Setting ForecastHorizon to 4 will reduce the number of time steps that the model predicts, which may not match the business requirement of predicting next month’s inventory. Setting ForecastFrequency to W for weekly will change the granularity of the forecasts, which may not be appropriate for the monthly data. Setting FeaturizationMethodName to filling will not have any effect, since there is no missing data in the dataset.

CreatePredictor - Amazon Forecast

HPOConfig - Amazon Forecast

Collaborative filtering is a machine learning technique that recommends products or services to users based on the ratings or preferences of other users. This technique is well-suited for identifying customer shopping patterns and preferences because it takes into account the interactions between users and products.

To create a serverless ingestion and analytics solution for high-velocity, real-time streaming data, the Data Scientist should use the following AWS services:

AWS Glue Data Catalog: This is a managed service that acts as a central metadata repository for data assets across AWS and on-premises data sources. The Data Scientist can use AWS Glue Data Catalog to create a schema of the incoming data format, which defines the structure, format, and data types of the JSON records. The schema can be used by other AWS services to understand and process the data1.

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose: This is a fully managed service that delivers real-time streaming data to destinations such as Amazon S3, Amazon Redshift, Amazon Elasticsearch Service, and Splunk. The Data Scientist can use Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose to stream the data from the source and transform the data to a query-optimized, columnar format such as Apache Parquet or ORC using the AWS Glue Data Catalog before delivering to Amazon S3. This enables efficient compression, partitioning, and fast analytics on the data2.

Amazon S3: This is an object storage service that offers high durability, availability, and scalability. The Data Scientist can use Amazon S3 as the output datastore for the transformed data, which can be organized into buckets and prefixes according to the desired partitioning scheme. Amazon S3 also integrates with other AWS services such as Amazon Athena, Amazon EMR, and Amazon Redshift Spectrum for analytics3.

Amazon Athena: This is a serverless interactive query service that allows users to analyze data in Amazon S3 using standard SQL. The Data Scientist can use Amazon Athena to run SQL queries against the data in Amazon S3 and connect to existing business intelligence dashboards using the Athena Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) connector. Amazon Athena leverages the AWS Glue Data Catalog to access the schema information and supports formats such as Parquet and ORC for fast and cost-effective queries4.

1: What Is the AWS Glue Data Catalog? - AWS Glue

2: What Is Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose? - Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose

3: What Is Amazon S3? - Amazon Simple Storage Service

4: What Is Amazon Athena? - Amazon Athena

To capture word context and sequential QA information, the embedding vectors need to consider both the order and the meaning of the words in the text.

Option B, Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm in Skip-gram mode, is a valid option because it can learn word embeddings that capture the semantic similarity and syntactic relations between words based on their co-occurrence in a window of words. Skip-gram mode can also handle rare words better than continuous bag-of-words (CBOW) mode1.

Option E, combination of the Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm in Batch Skip-gram mode with a custom recurrent neural network (RNN), is another valid option because it can leverage the advantages of Skip-gram mode and also use an RNN to model the sequential nature of the text. An RNN can capture the temporal dependencies and long-term dependencies between words, which are important for QA tasks2.

Option A, Amazon SageMaker seq2seq algorithm, is not a valid option because it is designed for sequence-to-sequence tasks such as machine translation, summarization, or chatbots. It does not produce embedding vectors for text series, but rather generates an output sequence given an input sequence3.

Option C, Amazon SageMaker Object2Vec algorithm, is not a valid option because it is designed for learning embeddings for pairs of objects, such as text-image, text-text, or image-image. It does not produce embedding vectors for text series, but rather learns a similarity function between pairs of objects4.

Option D, Amazon SageMaker BlazingText algorithm in continuous bag-of-words (CBOW) mode, is not a valid option because it does not capture word context as well as Skip-gram mode. CBOW mode predicts a word given its surrounding words, while Skip-gram mode predicts the surrounding words given a word. CBOW mode is faster and more suitable for frequent words, but Skip-gram mode can learn more meaningful embeddings for rare words1.

1: Amazon SageMaker BlazingText

2: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)

3: Amazon SageMaker Seq2Seq

4: Amazon SageMaker Object2Vec

Amazon Athena is an interactive query service that allows you to analyze data stored in Amazon S3 using standard SQL. Athena is serverless, so you only pay for the queries that you run and there is no infrastructure to manage.

To optimize the query performance of Athena, one of the best practices is to convert the data into a columnar format, such as Apache Parquet or Apache ORC. Columnar formats store data by columns rather than by rows, which allows Athena to scan only the columns that are relevant to the query, reducing the amount of data read and improving the query speed. Columnar formats also support compression and encoding schemes that can reduce the storage space and the data scanned per query, further enhancing the performance and reducing the cost.

In contrast, plaintext CSV files store data by rows, which means that Athena has to scan the entire row even if only a few columns are needed for the query. This increases the amount of data read and the query latency. Moreover, plaintext CSV files do not support compression or encoding, which means that they take up more storage space and incur higher query costs.

Therefore, the Machine Learning Specialist should transform the dataset to Apache Parquet format to minimize query runtime.

Top 10 Performance Tuning Tips for Amazon Athena

Columnar Storage Formats

Using compressions will reduce the amount of data scanned by Amazon Athena, and also reduce your S3 bucket storage. It’s a Win-Win for your AWS bill. Supported formats: GZIP, LZO, SNAPPY (Parquet) and ZLIB.

A stratified k-fold cross-validation strategy is a technique that preserves the class distribution in each fold. This is important for imbalanced datasets, such as the one in the question, where the disease is seen in only 3% of the population. If a random k-fold cross-validation strategy is used, some folds may have no positive cases or very few, which would lead to poor estimates of the model performance. A stratified k-fold cross-validation strategy ensures that each fold has the same proportion of positive and negative cases as the whole dataset, which makes the evaluation more reliable and robust. A k-fold cross-validation strategy with k=5 and 3 repeats is also a possible option, but it is more computationally expensive and may not be necessary if the stratification is done properly. An 80/20 stratified split between training and validation is another option, but it uses less data for training and validation than k-fold cross-validation, which may result in higher variance and lower accuracy of the estimates. References:

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Certification Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training: Model Evaluation

How to Fix k-Fold Cross-Validation for Imbalanced Classification

The best solution is to configure Amazon EventBridge to run a predefined SageMaker pipeline to perform the transformations when a new data is detected in the S3 bucket. This solution requires the least development effort because it leverages the native integration between EventBridge and SageMaker Pipelines, which allows you to trigger a pipeline execution based on an event rule. EventBridge can monitor the S3 bucket for new data uploads and invoke the pipeline that contains the same transformations and feature engineering steps that were defined in SageMaker Data Wrangler. The pipeline can then ingest the transformed data into the online feature store for training and inference.

The other solutions are less optimal because they require more development effort and additional services. Using AWS Lambda or AWS Step Functions would require writing custom code to invoke the SageMaker pipeline and handle any errors or retries. Using Apache Airflow would require setting up and maintaining an Airflow server and DAGs, as well as integrating with the SageMaker API.

Amazon EventBridge and Amazon SageMaker Pipelines integration

Create a pipeline using a JSON specification

Ingest data into a feature group

To read data from an Amazon S3 bucket that is protected with server-side encryption using AWS KMS, the Amazon SageMaker notebook instance needs to have an IAM role that has permission to access the S3 bucket and the KMS key. The IAM role is an identity that defines the permissions for the notebook instance to interact with other AWS services. The IAM role can be assigned to the notebook instance when it is created or updated later.

The KMS key policy is a document that specifies who can use and manage the KMS key. The KMS key policy can grant permission to the IAM role of the notebook instance to decrypt the data in the S3 bucket. The KMS key policy can also grant permission to other principals, such as AWS accounts, IAM users, or IAM roles, to use the KMS key for encryption and decryption operations.

Therefore, the Machine Learning Specialist should assign an IAM role to the Amazon SageMaker notebook with S3 read access to the dataset. Grant permission in the KMS key policy to that role. This way, the notebook instance can use the IAM role credentials to access the S3 bucket and the KMS key, and read the encrypted data from the S3 bucket.

Create an IAM Role to Grant Permissions to Your Notebook Instance

Using Key Policies in AWS KMS

A naive Bayesian model assumes that the features are conditionally independent given the class label. This means that the joint probability of the features and the class can be factorized as the product of the class prior and the feature likelihoods. A full Bayesian network, on the other hand, does not make this assumption and allows for modeling arbitrary dependencies between the features and the class using a directed acyclic graph. In this case, the joint probability of the features and the class is given by the product of the conditional probabilities of each node given its parents in the graph. If the features are statistically dependent, meaning that their correlation coefficients are not close to zero, then a naive Bayesian model would not capture these dependencies and would likely perform worse than a full Bayesian network that can account for them. Therefore, a full Bayesian network describes the underlying data better in this situation. References:

Naive Bayes and Text Classification I

Bayesian Networks

The solution C will improve the computational efficiency of the models because it uses Amazon SageMaker Debugger and pruning, which are techniques that can reduce the size and complexity of the convolutional neural network (CNN) models. The solution C involves the following steps:

Use Amazon SageMaker Debugger to gain visibility into the training weights, gradients, biases, and activation outputs. Amazon SageMaker Debugger is a service that can capture and analyze the tensors that are emitted during the training process of machine learning models. Amazon SageMaker Debugger can provide insights into the model performance, quality, and convergence. Amazon SageMaker Debugger can also help to identify and diagnose issues such as overfitting, underfitting, vanishing gradients, and exploding gradients1.

Compute the filter ranks based on the training information. Filter ranking is a technique that can measure the importance of each filter in a convolutional layer based on some criterion, such as the average percentage of zero activations or the L1-norm of the filter weights. Filter ranking can help to identify the filters that have little or no contribution to the model output, and thus can be removed without affecting the model accuracy2.

Apply pruning to remove the low-ranking filters. Pruning is a technique that can reduce the size and complexity of a neural network by removing the redundant or irrelevant parts of the network, such as neurons, connections, or filters. Pruning can help to improve the computational efficiency, memory usage, and inference speed of the model, as well as to prevent overfitting and improve generalization3.

Set the new weights based on the pruned set of filters. After pruning, the model will have a smaller and simpler architecture, with fewer filters in each convolutional layer. The new weights of the model can be set based on the pruned set of filters, either by initializing them randomly or by fine-tuning them from the original weights4.

Run a new training job with the pruned model. The pruned model can be trained again with the same or a different dataset, using the same or a different framework or algorithm. The new training job can use the same or a different configuration of Amazon SageMaker, such as the instance type, the hyperparameters, or the data ingestion mode. The new training job can also use Amazon SageMaker Debugger to monitor and analyze the training process and the model quality5.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Using Amazon CloudWatch metrics to gain visibility into the SageMaker training weights, gradients, biases, and activation outputs will not be as effective as using Amazon SageMaker Debugger. Amazon CloudWatch is a service that can monitor and observe the operational health and performance of AWS resources and applications. Amazon CloudWatch can provide metrics, alarms, dashboards, and logs for various AWS services, including Amazon SageMaker. However, Amazon CloudWatch does not provide the same level of granularity and detail as Amazon SageMaker Debugger for the tensors that are emitted during the training process of machine learning models. Amazon CloudWatch metrics are mainly focused on the resource utilization and the training progress, not on the model performance, quality, and convergence6.

Option B: Using Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth to build and run data labeling workflows and collecting a larger labeled dataset with the labeling workflows will not improve the computational efficiency of the models. Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth is a service that can create high-quality training datasets for machine learning by using human labelers. A larger labeled dataset can help to improve the model accuracy and generalization, but it will not reduce the memory, battery, and hardware consumption of the model. Moreover, a larger labeled dataset may increase the training time and cost of the model7.

Option D: Using Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor to gain visibility into the ModelLatency metric and OverheadLatency metric of the model after the company deploys the model and increasing the model learning rate will not improve the computational efficiency of the models. Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor is a service that can monitor and analyze the quality and performance of machine learning models that are deployed on Amazon SageMaker endpoints. The ModelLatency metric and the OverheadLatency metric can measure the inference latency of the model and the endpoint, respectively. However, these metrics do not provide any information about the training weights, gradients, biases, and activation outputs of the model, which are needed for pruning. Moreover, increasing the model learning rate will not reduce the size and complexity of the model, but it may affect the model convergence and accuracy.

1: Amazon SageMaker Debugger

2: Pruning Convolutional Neural Networks for Resource Efficient Inference

3: Pruning Neural Networks: A Survey

4: Learning both Weights and Connections for Efficient Neural Networks

5: Amazon SageMaker Training Jobs

6: Amazon CloudWatch Metrics for Amazon SageMaker

7: Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth

Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor

 Amazon EMR is a service that can process large amounts of data efficiently and cost-effectively. It can run distributed frameworks such as Apache Spark, which can perform feature engineering on big data. Amazon SageMaker SDK is a Python library that can interact with Amazon SageMaker service to train and deploy machine learning models. It can also use Amazon EMR as a data source for training data. References:

Amazon EMR

Amazon SageMaker SDK

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose is a fully managed service that can capture, transform, and load streaming data into AWS data stores, such as Amazon S3, Amazon Redshift, Amazon Elasticsearch Service, and Splunk. It can also invoke AWS Lambda functions to perform custom transformations on the data. Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics is a service that can analyze streaming data in real time using SQL or Apache Flink applications. It can also use machine learning algorithms, such as Random Cut Forest (RCF), to perform anomaly detection on streaming data. RCF is an unsupervised learning algorithm that assigns an anomaly score to each data point based on how different it is from the rest of the data. By using Kinesis Data Firehose and Kinesis Data Analytics, the cybersecurity company can ingest the data in real time, score the malicious events as anomalies, and stream the results to Amazon S3, which can serve as a data lake for later processing and analysis. This is the most efficient way to accomplish these tasks, as it does not require any additional infrastructure, coding, or training.

Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose - Amazon Web Services

Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics - Amazon Web Services

Anomaly Detection with Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics - Amazon Web Services

[AWS Certified Machine Learning - Specialty Sample Questions]

Amazon SageMaker supports encryption at rest for the ML storage volumes, the model artifacts, and the data in Amazon S3 using AWS Key Management Service (AWS KMS). AWS KMS is a service that allows customers to create and manage encryption keys that can be used to encrypt data. AWS KMS also provides an audit trail of key usage by logging key events to AWS CloudTrail. Customers can use either AWS managed keys or customer managed keys to encrypt their data. AWS managed keys are created and managed by AWS on behalf of the customer, while customer managed keys are created and managed by the customer. Customer managed keys offer more control and flexibility over the key policies, permissions, and rotation. Therefore, to meet the requirements of the company, the best option is to use customer managed keys in AWS KMS to encrypt the ML data volumes, and to encrypt the model artifacts and data in Amazon S3.

The other options are not correct because:

Option A: AWS Cloud HSM is a service that provides hardware security modules (HSMs) to store and use encryption keys. AWS Cloud HSM is not integrated with Amazon SageMaker, and cannot be used to encrypt the ML data volumes, the model artifacts, or the data in Amazon S3. AWS Cloud HSM is more suitable for customers who need to meet strict compliance requirements or who need direct control over the HSMs.

Option B: SageMaker built-in transient keys are temporary keys that are used to encrypt the ML data volumes and are discarded immediately after encryption. These keys do not provide persistent encryption or logging of key usage. Enabling default encryption for new Amazon Elastic Block Store (Amazon EBS) volumes does not affect the ML data volumes, which are encrypted separately by SageMaker. Moreover, this option does not address the encryption of the model artifacts and data in Amazon S3.

Option D: AWS Security Token Service (AWS STS) is a service that provides temporary credentials to access AWS resources. AWS STS does not provide encryption keys or encryption services. AWS STS cannot be used to encrypt the ML storage volumes, the model artifacts, or the data in Amazon S3.

Protect Data at Rest Using Encryption - Amazon SageMaker

What is AWS Key Management Service? - AWS Key Management Service

What is AWS CloudHSM? - AWS CloudHSM

What is AWS Security Token Service? - AWS Security Token Service

The data scientist should use Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth to sort the data into two groups named “enrolled” or “not enrolled.” This will create a labeled dataset that can be used for supervised learning. The data scientist should then use a classification algorithm to run predictions on the test data. A classification algorithm is a suitable choice for predicting a binary outcome, such as enrollment status, based on the input features, such as academic performance. A classification algorithm will output a probability for each class label and assign the most likely label to each observation.

Use Amazon SageMaker Ground Truth to Label Data

Classification Algorithm in Machine Learning

To retrieve only the latest version of a record in real-time for a single entity (like a customer), the correct method is to use the GetRecord API provided by SageMaker Feature Store.

“Use the GetRecord API to retrieve the latest feature values for a specific record identifier from the online store. This operation returns the latest version of the record only.”

This is optimal for low-latency, single-record lookups, such as real-time inference scenarios. BatchGetRecord is used for multiple records, and Athena queries are for offline/batch analysis and not suited for real-time access.

A convolutional neural network (CNN) is a type of deep learning model that can learn to extract features from images and perform tasks such as classification, segmentation, and detection1. ResNet is a popular CNN architecture that uses residual connections to overcome the problem of vanishing gradients and enable very deep networks2. For the task of predicting product quality based on sensor data, a CNN and ResNet approach can leverage the spatial structure of the data and learn complex patterns that distinguish different quality levels.

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs / ConvNets)

PyTorch ResNet: The Basics and a Quick Tutorial

The Data Scientist needs to migrate an existing on-premises ETL process to the cloud, using a solution that can combine multiple data sources, reuse existing PySpark logic, run on the existing schedule, and minimize the number of servers that need to be managed. The best architecture for this scenario is to use AWS Glue, which is a serverless data integration service that can create and run ETL jobs on AWS.

AWS Glue can perform the following tasks to meet the requirements:

Combine multiple data sources: AWS Glue can access data from various sources, such as Amazon S3, Amazon RDS, Amazon Redshift, Amazon DynamoDB, and more. AWS Glue can also crawl the data sources and discover their schemas, formats, and partitions, and store them in the AWS Glue Data Catalog, which is a centralized metadata repository for all the data assets.

Reuse existing PySpark logic: AWS Glue supports writing ETL scripts in Python or Scala, using Apache Spark as the underlying execution engine. AWS Glue provides a library of built-in transformations and connectors that can simplify the ETL code. The Data Scientist can write the ETL job in PySpark and leverage the existing logic to perform the data processing.

Run the solution on the existing schedule: AWS Glue can create triggers that can start ETL jobs based on a schedule, an event, or a condition. The Data Scientist can create a new AWS Glue trigger to run the ETL job based on the existing schedule, using a cron expression or a relative time interval.

Minimize the number of servers that need to be managed: AWS Glue is a serverless service, which means that it automatically provisions, configures, scales, and manages the compute resources required to run the ETL jobs. The Data Scientist does not need to worry about setting up, maintaining, or monitoring any servers or clusters for the ETL process.

Therefore, the Data Scientist should use the following architecture to build the cloud solution:

Write the raw data to Amazon S3: The Data Scientist can use any method to upload the raw data from the on-premises sources to Amazon S3, such as AWS DataSync, AWS Storage Gateway, AWS Snowball, or AWS Direct Connect. Amazon S3 is a durable, scalable, and secure object storage service that can store any amount and type of data.

Create an AWS Glue ETL job to perform the ETL processing against the input data: The Data Scientist can use the AWS Glue console, AWS Glue API, AWS SDK, or AWS CLI to create and configure an AWS Glue ETL job. The Data Scientist can specify the input and output data sources, the IAM role, the security configuration, the job parameters, and the PySpark script location. The Data Scientist can also use the AWS Glue Studio, which is a graphical interface that can help design, run, and monitor ETL jobs visually.

Write the ETL job in PySpark to leverage the existing logic: The Data Scientist can use a code editor of their choice to write the ETL script in PySpark, using the existing logic to transform the data. The Data Scientist can also use the AWS Glue script editor, which is an integrated development environment (IDE) that can help write, debug, and test the ETL code. The Data Scientist can store the ETL script in Amazon S3 or GitHub, and reference it in the AWS Glue ETL job configuration.

Create a new AWS Glue trigger to trigger the ETL job based on the existing schedule: The Data Scientist can use the AWS Glue console, AWS Glue API, AWS SDK, or AWS CLI to create and configure an AWS Glue trigger. The Data Scientist can specify the name, type, and schedule of the trigger, and associate it with the AWS Glue ETL job. The trigger will start the ETL job according to the defined schedule.

Configure the output target of the ETL job to write to a “processed” location in Amazon S3 that is accessible for downstream use: The Data Scientist can specify the output location of the ETL job in the PySpark script, using the AWS Glue DynamicFrame or Spark DataFrame APIs. The Data Scientist can write the output data to a “processed” location in Amazon S3, using a format such as Parquet, ORC, JSON, or CSV, that is suitable for downstream processing.

What Is AWS Glue?

AWS Glue Components

AWS Glue Studio

AWS Glue Triggers

Pipe input mode is a feature of Amazon SageMaker that allows streaming large datasets from Amazon S3 directly to the training algorithm without downloading them to the local disk. This reduces the startup time, disk space, and cost of training jobs. Pipe input mode is supported by most of the built-in algorithms and can also be used with custom training algorithms. To use Pipe input mode, the data needs to be in a binary format such as protobuf recordIO or TFRecord. The training code needs to use the PipeModeDataset class to read the data from the named pipe provided by SageMaker. To verify that the training code and the model parameters are working as expected, it is recommended to train locally on a smaller subset of the data before launching a full-scale training job on SageMaker. This approach is faster and more efficient than the other options, which involve either downloading the full dataset to an EC2 instance or using AWS Glue, which is not designed for training machine learning models. References:

Using Pipe input mode for Amazon SageMaker algorithms

Using Pipe Mode with Your Own Algorithms

PipeModeDataset Class

B. Apply principal component analysis (PCA): PCA is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of a dataset by transforming the original features into a smaller set of new features that capture most of the variance in the data. PCA can help address the issue of multicollinearity, which occurs when some features are highly correlated with each other and can cause problems for some machine learning algorithms. By applying PCA, the data engineer can reduce the number of features and remove the redundancy in the data.

C. Remove a portion of highly correlated features from the dataset: Another way to deal with multicollinearity is to manually remove some of the features that are highly correlated with each other. This can help simplify the model and avoid overfitting. The data engineer can use the correlation matrix to identify the features that have a high correlation coefficient (e.g., above 0.8 or below -0.8) and remove one of them from the dataset. References: =

Principal Component Analysis: This is a document from AWS that explains what PCA is, how it works, and how to use it with Amazon SageMaker.

Multicollinearity: This is a document from AWS that describes what multicollinearity is, how to detect it, and how to deal with it.

SageMaker Automatic Model Tuning (AMT) is a fully managed hyperparameter optimization feature that finds the best values for model parameters like eta, alpha, min_child_weight, and max_depth.

“Use SageMaker automatic model tuning to find the best version of a model by running many training jobs on your dataset using the ranges of hyperparameters that you specify.”

It supports built-in algorithms like XGBoost, and can optimize for evaluation metrics like AUC, making it the least operational overhead solution for this task.

The solution that will meet the requirements with the least development effort is to use Amazon SageMaker Feature Store to set feature groups for the current features that the ML models use, assign the required metadata for each feature, and use Amazon QuickSight to analyze the metadata. This solution can leverage the existing AWS services and features to perform feature-level metadata analysis and reporting.

Amazon SageMaker Feature Store is a fully managed, purpose-built repository to store, update, search, and share machine learning (ML) features. The service provides feature management capabilities such as enabling easy feature reuse, low latency serving, time travel, and ensuring consistency between features used in training and inference workflows. A feature group is a logical grouping of ML features whose organization and structure is defined by a feature group schema. A feature group schema consists of a list of feature definitions, each of which specifies the name, type, and metadata of a feature. The metadata can include information such as data sensitivity, authorship, description, and parameters. The metadata can help make features discoverable, understandable, and traceable. Amazon SageMaker Feature Store allows users to set feature groups for the current features that the ML models use, and assign the required metadata for each feature using the AWS SDK for Python (Boto3), AWS Command Line Interface (AWS CLI), or Amazon SageMaker Studio1.

Amazon QuickSight is a fully managed, serverless business intelligence service that makes it easy to create and publish interactive dashboards that include ML insights. Amazon QuickSight can connect to various data sources, such as Amazon S3, Amazon Athena, Amazon Redshift, and Amazon SageMaker Feature Store, and analyze the data using standard SQL or built-in ML-powered analytics. Amazon QuickSight can also create rich visualizations and reports that can be accessed from any device, and securely shared with anyone inside or outside an organization. Amazon QuickSight can be used to analyze the metadata of the features stored in Amazon SageMaker Feature Store, and generate a report that summarizes the metadata analysis2.

The other options are either more complex or less effective than the proposed solution. Using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler to select the features and create a data flow to perform feature-level metadata analysis would require additional steps and resources, and may not capture all the metadata attributes that the company requires. Creating an Amazon DynamoDB table to store feature-level metadata would introduce redundancy and inconsistency, as the metadata is already stored in Amazon SageMaker Feature Store. Using SageMaker Studio to analyze the metadata would not generate a report that can be easily shared and accessed by the company.

1: Amazon SageMaker Feature Store – Amazon Web Services

2: Amazon QuickSight – Business Intelligence Service - Amazon Web Services

The best way to visualize the model’s degradation is to create a histogram of the model errors over the last 3 weeks and compare it with a histogram of the model errors from before that period. A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data. It shows how often each value or range of values occurs in the data. A model error is the difference between the actual value and the predicted value. A high model error indicates a poor fit of the model to the data. By comparing the histograms of the model errors, the ML team can see if there is a significant change in the shape, spread, or center of the distribution. This can indicate if the model is underfitting, overfitting, or drifting from the data. A line chart or a scatter plot would not be as effective as a histogram for this purpose, because they do not show the distribution of the errors. A line chart would only show the trend of the errors over time, which may not capture the variability or outliers. A scatter plot would only show the relationship between the errors and another variable, such as daily sales, which may not be relevant or informative for the model’s performance. References:

Histogram - Wikipedia

Model error - Wikipedia

SageMaker Model Monitor - visualizing monitoring results

 A convolutional neural network (CNN) is a type of machine learning algorithm that is suitable for image classification tasks. A CNN consists of multiple layers that can extract features from images and learn to recognize patterns and objects. A CNN can also use transfer learning to leverage pre-trained models that have been trained on large-scale image datasets, such as ImageNet, and fine-tune them for specific tasks, such as detecting the company’s retail brand. A CNN can achieve high accuracy and performance for image classification problems, as it can handle complex and diverse images and reduce the dimensionality and noise of the input data. A CNN can be implemented using various frameworks and libraries, such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, Keras, MXNet, etc12

The other options are not valid or relevant for the image classification task. Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is a type of machine learning algorithm that is suitable for topic modeling tasks. LDA can discover the hidden topics and their proportions in a collection of text documents, such as news articles, tweets, reviews, etc. LDA is not applicable for image data, as it requires textual input and output. LDA can be implemented using various frameworks and libraries, such as Gensim, Scikit-learn, Mallet, etc34

Recurrent neural network (RNN) is a type of machine learning algorithm that is suitable for sequential data tasks. RNN can process and generate data that has temporal or sequential dependencies, such as natural language, speech, audio, video, etc. RNN is not optimal for image data, as it does not capture the spatial features and relationships of the pixels. RNN can be implemented using various frameworks and libraries, such as TensorFlow, PyTorch, Keras, MXNet, etc.

K-means is a type of machine learning algorithm that is suitable for clustering tasks. K-means can partition a set of data points into a predefined number of clusters, based on the similarity and distance between the data points. K-means is not suitable for image classification tasks, as it does not learn to label the images or detect the objects of interest. K-means can be implemented using various frameworks and libraries, such as Scikit-learn, TensorFlow, PyTorch, etc.

The best solution to improve the accuracy of the model and receive notifications for any future performance issues is to perform incremental training to update the model and activate Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor to detect model performance issues and to send notifications. Incremental training is a technique that allows you to update an existing model with new data without retraining the entire model from scratch. This can save time and resources, and help the model adapt to changing data patterns. Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor is a feature that continuously monitors the quality of machine learning models in production and notifies you when there are deviations in the model quality, such as data drift and anomalies. You can set up alerts that trigger actions, such as sending notifications to Amazon Simple Notification Service (Amazon SNS) topics, when certain conditions are met.

Option B is incorrect because Amazon SageMaker Model Governance is a set of tools that help you implement ML responsibly by simplifying access control and enhancing transparency. It does not provide a mechanism to automatically adjust model hyperparameters or improve model accuracy.

Option C is incorrect because Amazon SageMaker Debugger is a feature that helps you debug and optimize your model training process by capturing relevant data and providing real-time analysis. However, using Debugger alone does not update the model or monitor its performance in production. Also, retraining the model by using only data from the previous several months may not capture the full range of data variability and may introduce bias or overfitting.

Option D is incorrect because using only data from the previous several months to perform incremental training may not be sufficient to improve the model accuracy, as explained above. Moreover, this option does not specify how to activate Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor or configure the alerts and notifications.

Incremental training

Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor

Amazon SageMaker Model Governance

Amazon SageMaker Debugger

The best way to ensure that provisioned resources are being utilized effectively is to redeploy the model on an M5 instance and attach Amazon Elastic Inference to the instance. Amazon Elastic Inference allows you to attach low-cost GPU-powered acceleration to Amazon EC2 and Amazon SageMaker instances to reduce the cost of running deep learning inference by up to 75%. By using Amazon Elastic Inference, you can choose the instance type that is best suited to the overall CPU and memory needs of your application, and then separately configure the amount of inference acceleration that you need with no code changes. This way, you can avoid wasting GPU resources and pay only for what you use.

Option A is incorrect because a batch transform job is not suitable for real-time predictions. Batch transform is a high-performance and cost-effective feature for generating inferences using your trained models. Batch transform manages all of the compute resources required to get inferences. Batch transform is ideal for scenarios where you’re working with large batches of data, don’t need sub-second latency, or need to process data that is stored in Amazon S3.

Option C is incorrect because redeploying the model on a P3dn instance would not improve the resource utilization. P3dn instances are designed for distributed machine learning and high performance computing applications that need high network throughput and packet rate performance. They are not optimized for inference workloads.

Option D is incorrect because deploying the model onto an Amazon ECS cluster using a P3 instance would not ensure that provisioned resources are being utilized effectively. Amazon ECS is a fully managed container orchestration service that allows you to run and scale containerized applications on AWS. However, using Amazon ECS would not address the issue of underutilized GPU resources. In fact, it might introduce additional overhead and complexity in managing the cluster.

Amazon Elastic Inference - Amazon SageMaker

Batch Transform - Amazon SageMaker

Amazon EC2 P3 Instances

Amazon EC2 P3dn Instances

Amazon Elastic Container Service

 Initializing the words by word2vec embeddings pretrained on a large collection of news articles related to the energy sector will provide the maximum performance boost for the LSTM model. Word2vec is a technique that learns distributed representations of words based on their co-occurrence in a large corpus of text. These representations capture semantic and syntactic similarities between words, which can help the LSTM model better understand the meaning and context of the sentences in the text documents. Using word2vec embeddings that are pretrained on a relevant domain (energy sector) can further improve the performance by reducing the vocabulary mismatch and increasing the coverage of the words in the text documents. References:

AWS Machine Learning Specialty Exam Guide

AWS Machine Learning Training - Text Classification with TF-IDF, LSTM, BERT: a comparison of performance

AWS Machine Learning Training - Machine Learning - Exam Preparation Path

Amazon SageMaker script mode is a feature that allows users to use training scripts similar to those they would use outside SageMaker with SageMaker’s prebuilt containers for various frameworks such as TensorFlow. Script mode supports reading data from Amazon S3 buckets without requiring any changes to the training script. Therefore, option B is the best method of providing training data to Amazon SageMaker that would meet the business requirements with the least development overhead.

Option A is incorrect because using a local path of the data would not be scalable or reliable, as it would depend on the availability and capacity of the local storage. Moreover, using a local path of the data would not leverage the benefits of Amazon S3, such as durability, security, and performance. Option C is incorrect because rewriting the train.py script to convert TFRecords to protobuf would require additional development effort and complexity, as well as introduce potential errors and inconsistencies in the data format. Option D is incorrect because preparing the data in the format accepted by Amazon SageMaker would also require additional development effort and complexity, as well as involve using additional services such as AWS Glue or AWS Lambda, which would increase the cost and maintenance of the solution.

Bring your own model with Amazon SageMaker script mode

GitHub - aws-samples/amazon-sagemaker-script-mode

Deep Dive on TensorFlow training with Amazon SageMaker and Amazon S3

amazon-sagemaker-script-mode/generate_cifar10_tfrecords.py at master

In this scenario, the company requires that access to the Amazon SageMaker notebook remain within the AWS internal network, avoiding the public internet. By creating a VPC interface endpoint for SageMaker, the company can ensure that traffic to the SageMaker notebook remains internal to the VPC and is accessible over a private connection. The VPC interface endpoint allows private network access to AWS services, and it operates over AWS’s internal network, respecting the security and connectivity policies the company requires.

This solution requires minimal development effort compared to options involving bastion hosts or NAT gateways, as it directly provides private network access to the SageMaker notebook.

 The solution A will meet the requirements with the most operational efficiency because it uses Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler, which is a service that simplifies the process of data preparation and feature engineering for machine learning. The solution A involves the following steps:

Use Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler preconfigured transformations to explore feature transformations. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler provides a visual interface that allows data scientists to apply various transformations to their tabular data, such as encoding categorical features, scaling numerical features, imputing missing values, and more. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler also supports custom transformations using Python code or SQL queries1.

Use SageMaker Data Wrangler templates for visualization. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler also provides a set of templates that can generate visualizations of the data, such as histograms, scatter plots, box plots, and more. These visualizations can help data scientists to understand the distribution and characteristics of the data, and to compare the effects of different feature transformations1.

Export the feature processing workflow to a SageMaker pipeline for automation. Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler can export the feature processing workflow as a SageMaker pipeline, which is a service that orchestrates and automates machine learning workflows. A SageMaker pipeline can run the feature processing steps as a preprocessing step, and then feed the output to a training step or an inference step. This can reduce the operational overhead of managing the feature processing workflow and ensure its consistency and reproducibility2.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option B: Using an Amazon SageMaker notebook instance to experiment with different feature transformations, saving the transformations to Amazon S3, using Amazon QuickSight for visualization, and packaging the feature processing steps into an AWS Lambda function for automation will incur more operational overhead than using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler. The data scientist will have to write the code for the feature transformations, the data storage, the data visualization, and the Lambda function. Moreover, AWS Lambda has limitations on the execution time, memory size, and package size, which may not be sufficient for complex feature processing tasks3.

Option C: Using AWS Glue Studio with custom code to experiment with different feature transformations, saving the transformations to Amazon S3, using Amazon QuickSight for visualization, and packaging the feature processing steps into an AWS Lambda function for automation will incur more operational overhead than using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler. AWS Glue Studio is a visual interface that allows data engineers to create and run extract, transform, and load (ETL) jobs on AWS Glue. However, AWS Glue Studio does not provide preconfigured transformations or templates for feature engineering or data visualization. The data scientist will have to write custom code for these tasks, as well as for the Lambda function. Moreover, AWS Glue Studio is not integrated with SageMaker pipelines, and it may not be optimized for machine learning workflows4.

Option D: Using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler preconfigured transformations to experiment with different feature transformations, saving the transformations to Amazon S3, using Amazon QuickSight for visualization, packaging each feature transformation step into a separate AWS Lambda function, and using AWS Step Functions for workflow automation will incur more operational overhead than using Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler. The data scientist will have to create and manage multiple AWS Lambda functions and AWS Step Functions, which can increase the complexity and cost of the solution. Moreover, AWS Lambda and AWS Step Functions may not be compatible with SageMaker pipelines, and they may not be optimized for machine learning workflows5.

1: Amazon SageMaker Data Wrangler

2: Amazon SageMaker Pipelines

3: AWS Lambda

4: AWS Glue Studio

5: AWS Step Functions

The best storage scheme for this scenario is to store datasets as files in Amazon S3. Amazon S3 is a scalable, cost-effective, and durable object storage service that can store any amount and type of data. Amazon S3 also supports querying data using SQL with Amazon Athena, a serverless interactive query service that can analyze data directly in S3. This way, the Data Science team can easily explore and analyze their datasets without having to load them into a database or a compute instance.

The other options are not as suitable for this scenario because:

Storing datasets as files in an Amazon EBS volume attached to an Amazon EC2 instance would limit the scalability and availability of the data, as EBS volumes are only accessible within a single availability zone and have a maximum size of 16 TiB. Also, EBS volumes are more expensive than S3 buckets and require provisioning and managing EC2 instances.

Storing datasets as tables in a multi-node Amazon Redshift cluster would incur higher costs and complexity than using S3 and Athena. Amazon Redshift is a data warehouse service that is optimized for analytical queries over structured or semi-structured data. However, it requires setting up and maintaining a cluster of nodes, loading data into tables, and choosing the right distribution and sort keys for optimal performance. Moreover, Amazon Redshift charges for both storage and compute, while S3 and Athena only charge for the amount of data stored and scanned, respectively.

Storing datasets as global tables in Amazon DynamoDB would not be feasible for large amounts of data, as DynamoDB is a key-value and document database service that is designed for fast and consistent performance at any scale. However, DynamoDB has a limit of 400 KB per item and 25 GB per partition key value, which may not be enough for storing large datasets. Also, DynamoDB does not support SQL queries natively, and would require using a service like Amazon EMR or AWS Glue to run SQL queries over DynamoDB data.

Amazon S3 - Cloud Object Storage

Amazon Athena – Interactive SQL Queries for Data in Amazon S3

Amazon EBS - Amazon Elastic Block Store (EBS)

Amazon Redshift – Data Warehouse Solution - AWS

Amazon DynamoDB – NoSQL Cloud Database Service

 The issue is that the notebook instances’ security group allows inbound traffic from any source IP address, which means that anyone with the authorized URL can access the notebook instances over the internet. To fix this issue, the data science team should modify the security group to allow traffic only from the CIDR ranges of the VPC, which are the IP addresses assigned to the resources within the VPC. This way, only the VPC interface endpoints and the resources within the VPC can communicate with the notebook instances. The data science team should apply this security group to all of the notebook instances’ VPC interfaces, which are the network interfaces that connect the notebook instances to the VPC.

The other options are not correct because:

Option B: Creating an IAM policy that allows the sagemaker:CreatePresignedNotebookInstanceUrl and sagemaker:DescribeNotebookInstance actions from only the VPC endpoints does not prevent individuals outside the VPC from accessing the notebook instances. These actions are used to generate and retrieve the authorized URL for the notebook instances, but they do not control who can use the URL to access the notebook instances. The URL can still be shared or leaked to unauthorized users, who can then access the notebook instances over the internet.

Option C: Adding a NAT gateway to the VPC and converting the subnets where the notebook instances are hosted to private subnets does not solve the issue either. A NAT gateway is used to enable outbound internet access from a private subnet, but it does not affect inbound internet access. The notebook instances can still be accessed over the internet if their security group allows inbound traffic from any source IP address. Moreover, stopping and starting the notebook instances to reassign only private IP addresses is not necessary, because the notebook instances already have private IP addresses assigned by the VPC interface endpoints.

Option D: Changing the network ACL of the subnet the notebook is hosted in to restrict access to anyone outside the VPC is not a good practice, because network ACLs are stateless and apply to the entire subnet. This means that the data science team would have to specify both the inbound and outbound rules for each IP address range that they want to allow or deny. This can be cumbersome and error-prone, especially if the VPC has multiple subnets and resources. It is better to use security groups, which are stateful and apply to individual resources, to control the access to the notebook instances.

Connect to SageMaker Within your VPC - Amazon SageMaker

Security Groups for Your VPC - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

VPC Interface Endpoints - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud

Multiple imputation is a technique that uses machine learning to generate multiple plausible values for each missing value in a dataset, based on the observed data and the relationships among the variables. Multiple imputation preserves the integrity of the dataset by accounting for the uncertainty and variability of the missing data, and avoids the bias and loss of information that may result from other methods, such as listwise deletion, last observation carried forward, or mean substitution. Multiple imputation can improve the accuracy and validity of statistical analysis and machine learning models that use the imputed dataset. References:

Managing missing values in your target and related datasets with automated imputation support in Amazon Forecast

Imputation by feature importance (IBFI): A methodology to impute missing data in large datasets

Multiple Imputation by Chained Equations (MICE) Explained

The best way to maintain the privacy and integrity of the data stored in Amazon S3 is to use a combination of VPC endpoints and S3 bucket policies. A VPC endpoint allows the SageMaker notebook instance to access the S3 bucket without going through the public internet. A bucket policy allows the S3 bucket owner to specify which VPCs or VPC endpoints can access the bucket. This way, the data is protected from unauthorized access and tampering. The other options are either insecure (A and D) or inefficient (B). References: Using Amazon S3 VPC Endpoints, Using Bucket Policies and User Policies

The best option is to use Amazon SageMaker Studio to rebuild the model and deploy it at an endpoint. Then, use Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor to store inferences and use the inferences to create Shapley values that help explain model behavior. Shapley values are a way of attributing the contribution of each feature to the model output. They can help the credit team understand why the model makes certain decisions and how the features affect the model outcomes. A chart that shows features and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) values can be created using the SHAP library in Python. This option is the most operationally efficient because it leverages the existing XGBoost training container and the built-in capabilities of Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor and SHAP library. References:

Amazon SageMaker Studio

Amazon SageMaker Model Monitor

SHAP library

The input mode for the training job determines how the training data is transferred from Amazon S3 to the SageMaker instance. There are two input modes: File and Pipe. File mode copies the entire training dataset from S3 to the local file system of the instance before starting the training job. This can cause a long delay before the training job launches, especially if the dataset is large. Pipe mode streams the data from S3 to the instance as the training job runs. This can reduce the startup time and improve the I/O throughput, as the data is read in smaller batches. Therefore, to address the performance issues with the current solution, the Specialist should ensure that the input mode for the training job is set to Pipe. This can be done by using the SageMaker Python SDK and setting the input_mode parameter to Pipe when creating the estimator or the fit method12. Alternatively, this can be done by using the AWS CLI and setting the InputMode parameter to Pipe when creating the training job3.

Access Training Data - Amazon SageMaker

Choosing Data Input Mode Using the SageMaker Python SDK - Amazon SageMaker

CreateTrainingJob - Amazon SageMaker Service

The correct solution for updating the software on a SageMaker notebook instance is to stop and then restart the notebook instance. This will automatically apply the latest security and software updates provided by SageMaker1

The other options are incorrect because they either do not update the software or require unnecessary steps. For example:

Option A calls the CreateNotebookInstanceLifecycleConfig API operation. This operation creates a lifecycle configuration, which is a set of shell scripts that run when a notebook instance is created or started. A lifecycle configuration can be used to customize the notebook instance, such as installing additional libraries or packages. However, it does not update the software on the notebook instance2

Option B creates a new SageMaker notebook instance and mounts the Amazon Elastic Block Store (Amazon EBS) volume from the original instance. This option will create a new notebook instance with the latest software, but it will also incur additional costs and require manual steps to transfer the data and settings from the original instance3

Option D calls the UpdateNotebookInstanceLifecycleConfig API operation. This operation updates an existing lifecycle configuration. As explained in option A, a lifecycle configuration does not update the software on the notebook instance4

1: Amazon SageMaker Notebook Instances - Amazon SageMaker

2: CreateNotebookInstanceLifecycleConfig - Amazon SageMaker

3: Create a Notebook Instance - Amazon SageMaker

4: UpdateNotebookInstanceLifecycleConfig - Amazon SageMaker

To perform efficient exploratory data analysis (EDA) on a large dataset for anomaly detection, using the First K option in SageMaker Data Wrangler is an optimal choice. This option allows the data scientist to select the first K rows, limiting the data loaded into memory, which conserves compute resources.

Given that the First K option allows the data scientist to determine K based on domain knowledge, this approach provides a representative sample without requiring extensive compute resources. Other options like randomized sampling may not provide data samples that are as useful for initial analysis in a time-series or sequential dataset context.

 XGBoost is a built-in Amazon SageMaker machine learning algorithm that should be used for modeling the credit card fraud detection problem. XGBoost is an algorithm that implements a scalable and distributed gradient boosting framework, which is a popular and effective technique for supervised learning problems. Gradient boosting is a method of combining multiple weak learners, such as decision trees, into a strong learner, by iteratively fitting new models to the residual errors of the previous models and adding them to the ensemble. XGBoost can handle various types of data, such as numerical, categorical, or text, and can perform both regression and classification tasks. XGBoost also supports various features and optimizations, such as regularization, missing value handling, parallelization, and cross-validation, that can improve the performance and efficiency of the algorithm.

XGBoost is suitable for the credit card fraud detection problem for the following reasons:

The problem is a binary classification problem, where the goal is to predict whether a transaction is fraudulent or not, based on the information from new transactions. XGBoost can perform binary classification by using a logistic regression objective function and outputting the probability of the positive class (fraudulent) for each transaction.

The problem involves a large and imbalanced dataset of historical data labeled as fraudulent. XGBoost can handle large-scale and imbalanced data by using distributed and parallel computing, as well as techniques such as weighted sampling, class weighting, or stratified sampling, to balance the classes and reduce the bias towards the majority class (non-fraudulent).

The problem requires a high accuracy and precision for detecting fraudulent transactions, as well as a low false positive rate for avoiding false alarms. XGBoost can achieve high accuracy and precision by using gradient boosting, which can learn complex and non-linear patterns from the data and reduce the variance and overfitting of the model. XGBoost can also achieve a low false positive rate by using regularization, which can reduce the complexity and noise of the model and prevent it from fitting spurious signals in the data.

The other options are not as suitable as XGBoost for the credit card fraud detection problem for the following reasons:

Seq2seq: Seq2seq is an algorithm that implements a sequence-to-sequence model, which is a type of neural network model that can map an input sequence to an output sequence. Seq2seq is mainly used for natural language processing tasks, such as machine translation, text summarization, or dialogue generation. Seq2seq is not suitable for the credit card fraud detection problem, because the problem is not a sequence-to-sequence task, but a binary classification task. The input and output of the problem are not sequences of words or tokens, but vectors of features and labels.

K-means: K-means is an algorithm that implements a clustering technique, which is a type of unsupervised learning method that can group similar data points into clusters. K-means is mainly used for exploratory data analysis, dimensionality reduction, or anomaly detection. K-means is not suitable for the credit card fraud detection problem, because the problem is not a clustering task, but a classification task. The problem requires using the labeled data to train a model that can predict the labels of new data, not finding the optimal number of clusters or the cluster memberships of the data.

Random Cut Forest (RCF): RCF is an algorithm that implements an anomaly detection technique, which is a type of unsupervised learning method that can identify data points that deviate from the normal behavior or distribution of the data. RCF is mainly used for detecting outliers, frauds, or faults in the data. RCF is not suitable for the credit card fraud detection problem, because the problem is not an anomaly detection task, but a classification task. The problem requires using the labeled data to train a model that can predict the labels of new data, not finding the anomaly scores or the anomalous data points in the data.

XGBoost Algorithm

Use XGBoost for Binary Classification with Amazon SageMaker

Seq2seq Algorithm

K-means Algorithm

[Random Cut Forest Algorithm]

The solution C is the best option to identify and address training issues with the least development effort. The solution C involves the following steps:

Use the SageMaker Debugger vanishing_gradient and LowGPUUtilization built-in rules to detect issues. SageMaker Debugger is a feature of Amazon SageMaker that allows data scientists to monitor, analyze, and debug machine learning models during training. SageMaker Debugger provides a set of built-in rules that can automatically detect common issues and anomalies in model training, such as vanishing or exploding gradients, overfitting, underfitting, low GPU utilization, and more1. The data scientist can use the vanishing_gradient rule to check if the gradients are becoming too small and causing the training to not converge. The data scientist can also use the LowGPUUtilization rule to check if the GPU resources are underutilized and causing the training to be inefficient2.

Launch the StopTrainingJob action if issues are detected. SageMaker Debugger can also take actions based on the status of the rules. One of the actions is StopTrainingJob, which can terminate the training job if a rule is in an error state. This can help the data scientist to save time and money by stopping the training early if issues are detected3.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Using CPU utilization metrics that are captured in Amazon CloudWatch and configuring a CloudWatch alarm to stop the training job early if low CPU utilization occurs will not identify and address training issues effectively. CPU utilization is not a good indicator of model training performance, especially for GPU instances. Moreover, CloudWatch alarms can only trigger actions based on simple thresholds, not complex rules or conditions4.

Option B: Using high-resolution custom metrics that are captured in Amazon CloudWatch and configuring an AWS Lambda function to analyze the metrics and to stop the training job early if issues are detected will incur more development effort than using SageMaker Debugger. The data scientist will have to write the code for capturing, sending, and analyzing the custom metrics, as well as for invoking the Lambda function and stopping the training job. Moreover, this solution may not be able to detect all the issues that SageMaker Debugger can5.

Option D: Using the SageMaker Debugger confusion and feature_importance_overweight built-in rules and launching the StopTrainingJob action if issues are detected will not identify and address training issues effectively. The confusion rule is used to monitor the confusion matrix of a classification model, which is not relevant for a regression model that predicts prices. The feature_importance_overweight rule is used to check if some features have too much weight in the model, which may not be related to the convergence or resource utilization issues2.

1: Amazon SageMaker Debugger

2: Built-in Rules for Amazon SageMaker Debugger

3: Actions for Amazon SageMaker Debugger

4: Amazon CloudWatch Alarms

5: Amazon CloudWatch Custom Metrics

To leverage the NVIDIA GPUs on Amazon EC2 P3 instances, the Machine Learning Specialist needs to build the Docker container to be NVIDIA-Docker compatible. NVIDIA-Docker is a tool that enables GPU-accelerated containers to run on Docker. It automatically configures the container to access the NVIDIA drivers and libraries on the host system. The Specialist does not need to bundle the NVIDIA drivers with the Docker image, as they are already installed on the EC2 P3 instances. The Specialist does not need to organize the Docker container’s file structure to execute on GPU instances, as this is not relevant for GPU compatibility. The Specialist does not need to set the GPU flag in the Amazon SageMaker Create TrainingJob request body, as this is only required for using Elastic Inference accelerators, not EC2 P3 instances. References: NVIDIA-Docker, Using GPU-Accelerated Containers, Using Elastic Inference in Amazon SageMaker

The solution C is the most likely to improve the data ingestion rate into Amazon S3 because it increases the number of shards for the data stream. The number of shards determines the throughput capacity of the data stream, which affects the rate of data ingestion. Each shard can support up to 1 MB per second of data input and 2 MB per second of data output. By increasing the number of shards, the company can increase the data ingestion rate proportionally. The company can use the UpdateShardCount API operation to modify the number of shards in the data stream1.

The other options are not likely to improve the data ingestion rate into Amazon S3 because:

Option A: Increasing the number of S3 prefixes for the delivery stream to write to will not affect the data ingestion rate, as it only changes the way the data is organized in the S3 bucket. The number of S3 prefixes can help to optimize the performance of downstream applications that read the data from S3, but it does not impact the performance of Kinesis Data Firehose2.

Option B: Decreasing the retention period for the data stream will not affect the data ingestion rate, as it only changes the amount of time the data is stored in the data stream. The retention period can help to manage the data availability and durability, but it does not impact the throughput capacity of the data stream3.

Option D: Adding more consumers using the Kinesis Client Library (KCL) will not affect the data ingestion rate, as it only changes the way the data is processed by downstream applications. The consumers can help to scale the data processing and handle failures, but they do not impact the data ingestion into S3 by Kinesis Data Firehose4.

1: Resharding - Amazon Kinesis Data Streams

2: Amazon S3 Prefixes - Amazon Kinesis Data Firehose

3: Data Retention - Amazon Kinesis Data Streams

4: Developing Consumers Using the Kinesis Client Library - Amazon Kinesis Data Streams

Data normalization is a data preprocessing technique that scales the features to a common range, such as [0, 1] or [-1, 1]. This helps reduce the impact of features with high magnitude on the cost function and improves the convergence during backpropagation. Data normalization can be done using different methods, such as min-max scaling, z-score standardization, or unit vector normalization. Data normalization is different from dimensionality reduction, which reduces the number of features; model regularization, which adds a penalty term to the cost function to prevent overfitting; and data augmentation, which increases the amount of data by creating synthetic samples. References:

Data processing options for AI/ML | AWS Machine Learning Blog

Data preprocessing - Machine Learning Lens

How to Normalize Data Using scikit-learn in Python

Normalization | Machine Learning | Google for Developers

The solution D is the best data visualization approach to determine the optimal value of k for the k-means clustering algorithm. The solution D involves the following steps:

Run the k-means clustering algorithm for a range of k. For each value of k, calculate the sum of squared errors (SSE). The SSE is a measure of how well the clusters fit the data. It is calculated by summing the squared distances of each data point to its closest cluster center. A lower SSE indicates a better fit, but it will always decrease as the number of clusters increases. Therefore, the goal is to find the smallest value of k that still has a low SSE1.

Plot a line chart of the SSE for each value of k. The line chart will show how the SSE changes as the value of k increases. Typically, the line chart will have a shape of an elbow, where the SSE drops rapidly at first and then levels off. The optimal value of k is the point after which the curve starts decreasing in a linear fashion. This point is also known as the elbow point, and it represents the balance between the number of clusters and the SSE1.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Calculating the principal component analysis (PCA) components, running the k-means clustering algorithm for a range of k by using only the first two PCA components, and creating a scatter plot with a different color for each cluster will not accurately determine the optimal value of k. PCA is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of the data by transforming it into a new set of features that capture the most variance in the data. However, PCA may not preserve the original structure and distances of the data, and it may lose some information in the process. Therefore, running the k-means clustering algorithm on the PCA components may not reflect the true clusters in the data. Moreover, using only the first two PCA components may not capture enough variance to represent the data well. Furthermore, creating a scatter plot may not be reliable, as it depends on the subjective judgment of the data scientist to decide when the clusters look reasonably separated2.

Option B: Calculating the PCA components and creating a line plot of the number of components against the explained variance will not determine the optimal value of k. This approach is used to determine the optimal number of PCA components to use for dimensionality reduction, not for clustering. The explained variance is the ratio of the variance of each PCA component to the total variance of the data. The optimal number of PCA components is the point where adding more components does not significantly increase the explained variance. However, this number may not correspond to the optimal number of clusters, as PCA and k-means clustering have different objectives and assumptions2.

Option C: Creating a t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) plot for a range of perplexity values will not determine the optimal value of k. t-SNE is a technique that reduces the dimensionality of the data by embedding it into a lower-dimensional space, such as a two-dimensional plane. t-SNE preserves the local structure and distances of the data, and it can reveal clusters and patterns in the data. However, t-SNE does not assign labels or centroids to the clusters, and it does not provide a measure of how well the clusters fit the data. Therefore, t-SNE cannot determine the optimal number of clusters, as it only visualizes the data. Moreover, t-SNE depends on the perplexity parameter, which is a measure of how many neighbors each point considers. The perplexity parameter can affect the shape and size of the clusters, and there is no optimal value for it. Therefore, creating a t-SNE plot for a range of perplexity values may not be consistent or reliable3.

1: How to Determine the Optimal K for K-Means?

2: Principal Component Analysis

3: t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding

The approach that will meet the requirements with the least operational overhead is to deploy all the models to a single SageMaker endpoint, treat each model as a production variant, configure an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created, and configure the Lambda function to call each production variant and return the results of each model. This approach involves the following steps:

Deploy all the models to a single SageMaker endpoint. Amazon SageMaker is a service that can build, train, and deploy machine learning models. Amazon SageMaker can deploy multiple models to a single endpoint, which is a web service that can serve predictions from the models. Each model can be treated as a production variant, which is a version of the model that runs on one or more instances. Amazon SageMaker can distribute the traffic among the production variants according to the specified weights1.

Treat each model as a production variant. Amazon SageMaker can deploy multiple models to a single endpoint, which is a web service that can serve predictions from the models. Each model can be treated as a production variant, which is a version of the model that runs on one or more instances. Amazon SageMaker can distribute the traffic among the production variants according to the specified weights1.

Configure an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created. Amazon S3 is a service that can store and retrieve any amount of data. Amazon S3 can send event notifications when certain actions occur on the objects in a bucket, such as object creation, deletion, or modification. Amazon S3 can invoke an AWS Lambda function as a destination for the event notifications. AWS Lambda is a service that can run code without provisioning or managing servers2.

Configure the Lambda function to call each production variant and return the results of each model. AWS Lambda can execute the code that can call the SageMaker endpoint and specify the production variant to invoke. AWS Lambda can use the AWS SDK or the SageMaker Runtime API to send requests to the endpoint and receive the predictions from the models. AWS Lambda can return the results of each model as a response to the event notification3.

The other options are not suitable because:

Option A: Configuring an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created, configuring the Lambda function to create three SageMaker batch transform jobs, one batch transform job for each model for each document, will incur more operational overhead than using a single SageMaker endpoint. Amazon SageMaker batch transform is a service that can process large datasets in batches and store the predictions in Amazon S3. Amazon SageMaker batch transform is not suitable for real-time inference, as it introduces a delay between the request and the response. Moreover, creating three batch transform jobs for each document will increase the complexity and cost of the solution4.

Option C: Deploying each model to its own SageMaker endpoint, configuring an S3 event notification that invokes an AWS Lambda function when new documents are created, configuring the Lambda function to call each endpoint and return the results of each model, will incur more operational overhead than using a single SageMaker endpoint. Deploying each model to its own endpoint will increase the number of resources and endpoints to manage and monitor. Moreover, calling each endpoint separately will increase the latency and network traffic of the solution5.

Option D: Deploying each model to its own SageMaker endpoint, creating three AWS Lambda functions, configuring each Lambda function to call a different endpoint and return the results, configuring three S3 event notifications to invoke the Lambda functions when new documents are created, will incur more operational overhead than using a single SageMaker endpoint and a single Lambda function. Deploying each model to its own endpoint will increase the number of resources and endpoints to manage and monitor. Creating three Lambda functions will increase the complexity and cost of the solution. Configuring three S3 event notifications will increase the number of triggers and destinations to manage and monitor6.

1: Deploying Multiple Models to a Single Endpoint - Amazon SageMaker

2: Configuring Amazon S3 Event Notifications - Amazon Simple Storage Service

3: Invoke an Endpoint - Amazon SageMaker

4: Get Inferences for an Entire Dataset with Batch Transform - Amazon SageMaker

5: Deploy a Model - Amazon SageMaker

6: AWS Lambda

To comply with the company’s security requirement that SageMaker notebook instances must not have internet connectivity, the most secure and recommended approach is to use VPC interface endpoints (AWS PrivateLink) for connecting SageMaker to other AWS services such as Amazon S3, without requiring internet access or a NAT Gateway.

Exact Extract from Amazon SageMaker documentation:

“You can connect to your notebook instance from your VPC through an interface endpoint in your Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) instead of connecting over the public internet. When you use a VPC interface endpoint, communication between your VPC and the notebook instance is conducted entirely and securely within the AWS network.”

Further security can be enforced using IAM and security group restrictions:

“To restrict access to only connections made from within your VPC, create an AWS Identity and Access Management (IAM) policy that restricts access to only calls that come from within your VPC. Then add that policy to every AWS Identity and Access Management user, group, or role used to access the notebook instance.”

Also:

“Use VPC endpoints to keep traffic between your VPC and SageMaker in the AWS network. This is especially useful when your notebook instances or endpoints don’t have internet access.”

By configuring interface VPC endpoints and controlling security groups and IAM policies appropriately, the SageMaker notebook instances can operate without any internet connectivity, meeting the company’s policy securely and effectively.

To control data egress from SageMaker, the ML engineer can use the following mechanisms:

Connect to SageMaker by using a VPC interface endpoint powered by AWS PrivateLink. This allows the ML engineer to access SageMaker services and resources without exposing the traffic to the public internet. This reduces the risk of data leakage and unauthorized access1

Enable network isolation for training jobs and models. This prevents the training jobs and models from accessing the internet or other AWS services. This ensures that the data used for training and inference is not exposed to external sources2

Protect data with encryption at rest and in transit. Use AWS Key Management Service (AWS KMS) to manage encryption keys. This enables the ML engineer to encrypt the data stored in Amazon S3 buckets, SageMaker notebook instances, and SageMaker endpoints. It also allows the ML engineer to encrypt the data in transit between SageMaker and other AWS services. This helps protect the data from unauthorized access and tampering3

The other options are not effective in controlling data egress from SageMaker:

Use SCPs to restrict access to SageMaker. SCPs are used to define the maximum permissions for an organization or organizational unit (OU) in AWS Organizations. They do not control the data egress from SageMaker, but rather the access to SageMaker itself4

Disable root access on the SageMaker notebook instances. This prevents the users from installing additional packages or libraries on the notebook instances. It does not prevent the data from being transferred out of the notebook instances.

Restrict notebook presigned URLs to specific IPs used by the company. This limits the access to the notebook instances from certain IP addresses. It does not prevent the data from being transferred out of the notebook instances.

1: Amazon SageMaker Interface VPC Endpoints (AWS PrivateLink) - Amazon SageMaker

2: Network Isolation - Amazon SageMaker

3: Encrypt Data at Rest and in Transit - Amazon SageMaker

4: Using Service Control Policies - AWS Organizations

Disable Root Access - Amazon SageMaker

Create a Presigned Notebook Instance URL - Amazon SageMaker

The data sources that the data scientist should use to augment the dataset of reviews are those that contain relevant and diverse customer feedback about the company or its products. Emails exchanged by customers and the company’s customer service agents can provide valuable insights into the issues and complaints that customers have, as well as the solutions and responses that the company offers. Social media posts containing the name of the company or its products can capture the opinions and sentiments of customers and potential customers, as well as their reactions to marketing campaigns and product launches. A publicly available collection of customer reviews can provide a large and varied sample of feedback from different online platforms and marketplaces, which can help to generalize the ML models and avoid bias.

Detect sentiment from customer reviews using Amazon Comprehend | AWS Machine Learning Blog

How to Apply Machine Learning to Customer Feedback

The AnalyzeDocument API action is the best option to generate a confidence score for each page of each contract. This API action analyzes an input document for relationships between detected items. The input document can be an image file in JPEG or PNG format, or a PDF file. The output is a JSON structure that contains the extracted data from the document. The FeatureTypes parameter specifies the types of analysis to perform on the document. The available feature types are TABLES, FORMS, and SIGNATURES. By setting the FeatureTypes parameter to SIGNATURES, the API action will detect and extract information about signatures from the document. The output will include a list of SignatureDetection objects, each containing information about a detected signature, such as its location and confidence score. The confidence score is a value between 0 and 100 that indicates the probability that the detected signature is correct. The output will also include a list of Block objects, each representing a document page. Each Block object will have a Page attribute that contains the page number and a Confidence attribute that contains the confidence score for the page. The confidence score for the page is the average of the confidence scores of the blocks that are detected on the page. The law firm can use the AnalyzeDocument API action to generate a confidence score for each page of each contract by using the SIGNATURES feature type and returning the confidence scores from the SignatureDetection and Block objects.

The other options are not suitable for generating a confidence score for each page of each contract. The Prediction API call is not an Amazon Textract API action, but a generic term for making inference requests to a machine learning model. The StartDocumentAnalysis API action is used to start an asynchronous job to analyze a document. The output is a job identifier (JobId) that is used to get the results of the analysis with the GetDocumentAnalysis API action. The GetDocumentAnalysis API action is used to get the results of a document analysis started by the StartDocumentAnalysis API action. The output is a JSON structure that contains the extracted data from the document. However, both the StartDocumentAnalysis and the GetDocumentAnalysis API actions do not support the SIGNATURES feature type, and therefore cannot detect signatures or provide confidence scores for them.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a dimensionality reduction technique that captures the variance within the feature space, helping to understand the directions in which data varies most. In SageMaker Data Wrangler, the multicollinearity measurement and PCA features allow the data scientist to analyze interdependencies between predictor variables while reducing redundancy. PCA transforms correlated features into a set of uncorrelated components, helping to simplify the dataset without significant loss of information, making it ideal for refining features based on variance.

Options A and D offer methods to understand feature relevance but are less effective for managing multicollinearity and variance representation in the data.

The best solution for this scenario is to perform forecasting by using claim IDs and dates to identify the expected number of claims in each outcome category every month. This solution has the following advantages:

It leverages the historical data of claim outcomes and dates to capture the temporal patterns and trends of the claims in each category1.

It does not require the claim contents or any other features to make predictions, which simplifies the data preparation and reduces the impact of missing or incomplete data2.

It can handle the high cardinality of the outcome categories, as forecasting models can output multiple values for each time point3.

It can provide predictions for several months in advance, which is useful for planning and budgeting purposes4.

The other solutions have the following drawbacks:

A: Performing classification every month by using supervised learning of the 200 outcome categories based on claim contents is not suitable, because it assumes that the claim contents are available and complete for all the records, which is not the case in this scenario2. Moreover, classification models usually output a single label for each input, which is not adequate for predicting the number of claims in each category3. Additionally, classification models do not account for the temporal aspect of the data, which is important for forecasting1.

B: Performing reinforcement learning by using claim IDs and dates and instructing the insurance agents who submit the claim records to estimate the expected number of claims in each outcome category every month is not feasible, because it requires a feedback loop between the model and the agents, which might not be available or reliable in this scenario5. Furthermore, reinforcement learning is more suitable for sequential decision making problems, where the model learns from its actions and rewards, rather than forecasting problems, where the model learns from historical data and outputs future values6.

D: Performing classification by using supervised learning of the outcome categories for which partial information on claim contents is provided and performing forecasting by using claim IDs and dates for all other outcome categories is not optimal, because it combines two different methods that might not be consistent or compatible with each other7. Also, this solution suffers from the same limitations as solution A, such as the dependency on claim contents, the inability to handle multiple outputs, and the ignorance of temporal patterns123.

1: Time Series Forecasting - Amazon SageMaker

2: Handling Missing Data for Machine Learning | AWS Machine Learning Blog

3: Forecasting vs Classification: What’s the Difference? | DataRobot

4: Amazon Forecast – Time Series Forecasting Made Easy | AWS News Blog

5: Reinforcement Learning - Amazon SageMaker

6: What is Reinforcement Learning? The Complete Guide | Edureka

7: Combining Machine Learning Models | by Will Koehrsen | Towards Data Science

 The plot in the graphic shows a right-skewed distribution, which violates the assumption of normality for linear regression. To correct this, the Data Scientist should apply a logarithmic transformation to the feature. This will help to make the distribution more symmetric and closer to a normal distribution, which is a key assumption for linear regression. References:

Linear Regression

Linear Regression with Amazon Machine Learning

Machine Learning on AWS

For a repository containing a large and dynamically scaling collection of images, Amazon S3 is ideal due to its scalability and versioning capabilities. Amazon S3 natively supports automatic scaling to accommodate increasing storage needs and allows versioning, which enables tracking and managing different versions of objects.

To meet the requirement of maintaining multiple, immediately accessible copies of data across AWS Regions, S3 Cross-Region Replication (CRR) can be enabled. CRR automatically replicates new or updated objects to a specified destination bucket in another AWS Region, ensuring low-latency access and disaster recovery. By setting up CRR with versioning enabled, the data scientist can achieve a multi-Region, scalable, and version-controlled repository in Amazon S3.

The best solution for this scenario is to use a multi-model endpoint in Amazon SageMaker, which allows hosting multiple models on the same endpoint and invoking them dynamically at runtime. This way, the company can reduce the operational overhead of managing multiple EC2 instances and model servers, and leverage the scalability, security, and performance of SageMaker hosting services. By using a multi-model endpoint, the company can also save on hosting costs by improving endpoint utilization and paying only for the models that are loaded in memory and the API calls that are made. To use a multi-model endpoint, the company needs to prepare a Docker container based on the open-source multi-model server, which is a framework-agnostic library that supports loading and serving multiple models from Amazon S3. The company can then create a multi-model endpoint in SageMaker, pointing to the S3 bucket containing all the models, and invoke the endpoint from the web client at runtime, specifying the TargetModel parameter according to the city of each request. This solution also enables the company to add or remove models from the S3 bucket without redeploying the endpoint, and to use different versions of the same model for different cities if needed. References:

Use Docker containers to build models

Host multiple models in one container behind one endpoint

Multi-model endpoints using Scikit Learn

Multi-model endpoints using XGBoost

 The problem of detecting specific types of weeds and their location within the field is an example of object detection, which is a type of machine learning model that identifies and localizes objects in an image. Amazon SageMaker provides a built-in object detection algorithm that uses a single-shot multibox detector (SSD) to perform real-time inference on streaming images. The SSD algorithm can handle multiple objects of varying sizes and scales in an image, and generate bounding boxes and scores for each object category. Therefore, option C is the best approach to obtain accurate predictions.

Option A is incorrect because image classification is a type of machine learning model that assigns a label to an image based on predefined categories. Image classification is not suitable for localizing objects within an image, as it does not provide bounding boxes or scores for each object. Option B is incorrect because Apache Parquet is a columnar storage format that is optimized for analytical queries. Apache Parquet is not suitable for storing images, as it does not preserve the spatial information of the pixels. Option D is incorrect because it combines the wrong format (Apache Parquet) and the wrong algorithm (image classification) for the given problem, as explained in options A and B.

Object Detection algorithm now available in Amazon SageMaker

Image classification and object detection using Amazon Rekognition Custom Labels and Amazon SageMaker JumpStart

Object Detection with Amazon SageMaker - W3Schools

aws-samples/amazon-sagemaker-tensorflow-object-detection-api

The agency wants to analyze the census data for population segmentation, which is a type of unsupervised learning problem that aims to group similar data points together based on their attributes. The agency can use a combination of algorithms that can perform dimensionality reduction and clustering on the data to achieve this goal.

Dimensionality reduction is a technique that reduces the number of features or variables in a dataset while preserving the essential information and relationships. Dimensionality reduction can help improve the efficiency and performance of clustering algorithms, as well as facilitate data visualization and interpretation. One of the most common algorithms for dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA), which transforms the original features into a new set of orthogonal features called principal components that capture the maximum variance in the data. PCA can help reduce the noise and redundancy in the data and reveal the underlying structure and patterns.

Clustering is a technique that partitions the data into groups or clusters based on their similarity or distance. Clustering can help discover the natural segments or categories in the data and understand their characteristics and differences. One of the most popular algorithms for clustering is k-means, which assigns each data point to one of k clusters based on the nearest mean or centroid. K-means can handle large and high-dimensional datasets and produce compact and spherical clusters.

Therefore, the combination of algorithms that would provide the appropriate insights for population segmentation are PCA and k-means. The agency can use PCA to reduce the dimensionality of the census data from 500 features to a smaller number of principal components that capture most of the variation in the data. Then, the agency can use k-means to cluster the data based on the principal components and identify the segments of the population that share similar characteristics.

Amazon SageMaker Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Amazon SageMaker K-Means Algorithm

The best solution for this scenario is to set up an AWS Glue job that has the Amazon Redshift cluster as the source and the S3 bucket as the destination, and use the built-in transforms Filter, Map, and RenameField to perform the required transformations. This solution has the following advantages:

It minimizes the effort that is needed to set up infrastructure for the ingestion and transformation, as AWS Glue is a fully managed service that provides a serverless Apache Spark environment, a graphical interface to define data sources and targets, and a code generation feature to create and edit scripts1.

It automates the extraction and transformation process, as AWS Glue can schedule the job to run monthly, and handle the connection, authentication, and configuration of the Amazon Redshift cluster and the S3 bucket2.

It minimizes the load on the Amazon Redshift cluster, as AWS Glue can read the data from the cluster in parallel and use a JDBC connection that supports SSL encryption3.

It performs the required transformations, as AWS Glue can use the built-in transforms Filter, Map, and RenameField to remove the rows with NULL values, split the timestamp column into date and time columns, and rename the card name column, respectively4.

The other solutions are not optimal or suitable, because they have the following drawbacks:

A: Setting up an Amazon EMR cluster and creating an Apache Spark job to read the data from the Amazon Redshift cluster and transform the data is not the most efficient or convenient solution, as it requires more effort and resources to provision, configure, and manage the EMR cluster, and to write and maintain the Spark code5.

B: Setting up an Amazon EC2 instance with a SQL client tool to query the data from the Amazon Redshift cluster directly and export the resulting dataset into a CSV file is not a scalable or reliable solution, as it depends on the availability and performance of the EC2 instance, and the manual execution and upload of the SQL queries and the CSV file6.

D: Using Amazon Redshift Spectrum to run a query that writes the data directly to the S3 bucket and creating an AWS Lambda function to run the query monthly is not a feasible solution, as Amazon Redshift Spectrum does not support writing data to external tables or S3 buckets, only reading data from them7.

1: What Is AWS Glue? - AWS Glue

2: Populating the Data Catalog - AWS Glue

3: Best Practices When Using AWS Glue with Amazon Redshift - AWS Glue

4: Built-In Transforms - AWS Glue

5: What Is Amazon EMR? - Amazon EMR

6: Amazon EC2 - Amazon Web Services (AWS)

7: Using Amazon Redshift Spectrum to Query External Data - Amazon Redshift

 Transfer learning is a technique that allows us to use a model trained for a certain task as a starting point for a machine learning model for a different task. For image classification, a common practice is to use a pre-trained model that was trained on a large and general dataset, such as ImageNet, and then customize it for the specific task. One way to customize the model is to replace the last fully connected layer, which is responsible for the final classification, with a new layer that has the same number of units as the number of classes in the new task. This way, the model can leverage the features learned by the previous layers, which are generic and useful for many image recognition tasks, and learn to map them to the new classes. The new layer can be initialized with random weights, and the rest of the model can be initialized with the pre-trained weights. This method is also known as feature extraction, as it extracts meaningful features from the pre-trained model and uses them for the new task. References:

Transfer learning and fine-tuning

Deep transfer learning for image classification: a survey